{"id":304,"date":"2015-02-06T23:15:43","date_gmt":"2015-02-06T23:15:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ospsych\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=304"},"modified":"2016-11-17T04:08:43","modified_gmt":"2016-11-17T04:08:43","slug":"trait-theorists","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/chapter\/trait-theorists\/","title":{"raw":"Trait Theorists","rendered":"Trait Theorists"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss early trait theories of Cattell and Eysenck<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss the Big Five factors and describe someone who is high and low on each of the five traits<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp126272\">Trait theorists believe personality can be understood via the approach that all people have certain <span data-type=\"term\">traits<\/span>, or characteristic ways of behaving. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? Early trait theorists tried to describe all human personality traits. For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport (Allport &amp; Odbert, 1936), found 4,500 words in the English language that could describe people. He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. A cardinal trait is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life\u2014such as Ebenezer Scrooge\u2019s greed and Mother Theresa\u2019s altruism. Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits. Central traits are those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy). Secondary traits are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders her salad dressing on the side. And you\u2014although not normally an anxious person\u2014feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp516400\">In an effort to make the list of traits more manageable, Raymond Cattell (1946, 1957) narrowed down the list to about 171 traits. However, saying that a trait is either present or absent does not accurately reflect a person\u2019s uniqueness, because all of our personalities are actually made up of the same traits; we differ only in the degree to which each trait is expressed. Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Table_11_07_01\">[link]<\/a>). He developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you are. If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold. A high score on this index signifies you are supportive and comforting.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table id=\"Table_11_07_01\" summary=\"A three column table compares low scores and high scores for personality factors measured by the 16PF Questionnaire. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cFactor,\u201d Low Score,\u201d and \u201cHigh Score.\u201d The first row contains \u201cwarmth; reserved, detached; and outgoing, supportive.\u201d The second row contains \u201cintellect; concrete thinker; and analytical.\u201d The third row contains \u201cemotional stability; moody, irritable; and stable, calm.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201caggressiveness; docile, submissive; and controlling, dominant.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cliveliness; somber, prudent; and adventurous, spontaneous.\u201d The sixth row contains \u201cdutifulness; unreliable; and conscientious.\u201d The seventh row contains \u201csocial assertiveness; shy, restrained; and uninhibited, bold.\u201d The eighth row contains \u201csensitivity; tough-minded; and sensitive, caring.\u201d The ninth row contains \u201cparanoia; trusting; and suspicious.\u201d The tenth row contains \u201cabstractness; conventional; and imaginative.\u201d The eleventh row contains \u201cintroversion; open, straightforward; and private, shrewd.\u201d The twelfth row contains \u201canxiety; confident; and apprehensive.\u201d The thirteenth row contains \u201copenmindedness; closeminded, traditional; and curious, experimental.\u201d The fourteenth row contains \u201cindependence; outgoing, social; and self-sufficient.\u201d The fifteenth row contains \u201cperfectionism; disorganized, casual; and organized, precise.\u201d The sixteenth row contains \u201ctension; relaxed; and stressed.\u201d\"><caption><span data-type=\"title\">Personality Factors Measured by the 16PF Questionnaire<\/span><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Factor<\/th>\r\n<th>Low Score<\/th>\r\n<th>High Score<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Warmth<\/td>\r\n<td>Reserved, detached<\/td>\r\n<td>Outgoing, supportive<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Intellect<\/td>\r\n<td>Concrete thinker<\/td>\r\n<td>Analytical<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Emotional stability<\/td>\r\n<td>Moody, irritable<\/td>\r\n<td>Stable, calm<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Aggressiveness<\/td>\r\n<td>Docile, submissive<\/td>\r\n<td>Controlling, dominant<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Liveliness<\/td>\r\n<td>Somber, prudent<\/td>\r\n<td>Adventurous, spontaneous<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Dutifulness<\/td>\r\n<td>Unreliable<\/td>\r\n<td>Conscientious<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Social assertiveness<\/td>\r\n<td>Shy, restrained<\/td>\r\n<td>Uninhibited, bold<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Sensitivity<\/td>\r\n<td>Tough-minded<\/td>\r\n<td>Sensitive, caring<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Paranoia<\/td>\r\n<td>Trusting<\/td>\r\n<td>Suspicious<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Abstractness<\/td>\r\n<td>Conventional<\/td>\r\n<td>Imaginative<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Introversion<\/td>\r\n<td>Open, straightforward<\/td>\r\n<td>Private, shrewd<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Anxiety<\/td>\r\n<td>Confident<\/td>\r\n<td>Apprehensive<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Openmindedness<\/td>\r\n<td>Closeminded, traditional<\/td>\r\n<td>Curious, experimental<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Independence<\/td>\r\n<td>Outgoing, social<\/td>\r\n<td>Self-sufficient<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Perfectionism<\/td>\r\n<td>Disorganized, casual<\/td>\r\n<td>Organized, precise<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Tension<\/td>\r\n<td>Relaxed<\/td>\r\n<td>Stressed<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp132800\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n\r\n<em><strong>Link to Learning<\/strong><\/em>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp1257472\">Follow this <a href=\"http:\/\/personality-testing.info\/tests\/16PF.php\" target=\"_blank\">link<\/a> to an assessment based on Cattell\u2019s 16PF questionnaire to see which personality traits dominate your personality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp311296\">Psychologists Hans and Sybil <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Eysenck<\/span> were personality theorists (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_07_Eysenck\">[link]<\/a>) who focused on <span data-type=\"term\">temperament<\/span>, the inborn, genetically based personality differences that you studied earlier in the chapter. They believed personality is largely governed by biology. The Eysencks (Eysenck, 1990, 1992; Eysenck &amp; Eysenck, 1963) viewed people as having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion\/introversion and neuroticism\/stability.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure><\/figure><figure id=\"Figure_11_07_Eysenck\"><figcaption><\/figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225020\/CNX_Psych_11_04_Eysenck.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together.\u201d\" width=\"325\" height=\"448\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Hans and Sybil Eysenck believed that our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance. (credit: \"Sirswindon\"\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp1309824\">According to their theory, people high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, whereas people high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others. In the neuroticism\/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable. Based on these two dimensions, the Eysencks\u2019 theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_04_Quadrants\">[link]<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure_11_04_Quadrants\"><figcaption><\/figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"731\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225022\/CNX_Psych_11_04_Quadrants.jpg\" alt=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cUnstable Emotions (Neurotic),\u201d \u201cExtroverted Personality,\u201d \u201cStable Emotions,\u201d and \u201cIntroverted Personality.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201ctouchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201csociable, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, and carefree.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201cpassive, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201cmoody, anxious, rigid, pessimistic, unsociable, and quiet.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"598\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> The Eysencks described two factors to account for variations in our personalities: extroversion\/introversion and emotional stability\/instability.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp1255168\">Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control (Eysenck, Eysenck &amp; Barrett, 1985). In this dimension, people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control\u2014they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional (Eysenck, Eysenck &amp; Barrett, 1985).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp374480\">While Cattell\u2019s 16 factors may be too broad, the Eysenck\u2019s two-factor system has been criticized for being too narrow. Another personality theory, called the <span data-type=\"term\">Five Factor Model<\/span>, effectively hits a middle ground, with its five factors referred to as the Big Five personality traits. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions (Funder, 2001). The five traits are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_07_BigFive\">[link]<\/a>). A helpful way to remember the traits is by using the mnemonic OCEAN.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp5119312\">In the Five Factor Model, each person has each trait, but they occur along a spectrum. Openness to experience is characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this trait tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests. Conscientiousness is characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior). People who score high on this trait are hardworking and dependable. Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success (Akomolafe, 2013; Chamorro-Premuzic &amp; Furnham, 2008; Conrad &amp; Patry, 2012; Noftle &amp; Robins, 2007; Wagerman &amp; Funder, 2007). Extroversion is characterized by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this trait are usually described as outgoing and warm. Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature (Tok, 2011). The fourth trait is agreeableness, which is the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on this trait actually earned more money than men who were considered more agreeable (Judge, Livingston, &amp; Hurst, 2012). The last of the Big Five traits is neuroticism, which is the tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. Watson and Clark (1984) found that people reporting high levels of neuroticism also tend to report feeling anxious and unhappy. In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure_11_07_BigFive\"><figcaption><\/figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"731\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225023\/CNX_Psych_11_07_BigFive.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram includes five vertically stacked arrows, which point to the left and right. A dimension's first letter, name, and description are included inside of each arrow. A box to the left of each arrow includes traits associated with a low score for that arrow's dimension. A box to the right of each arrow includes traits associated with a high score for that arrow's dimension. The top arrow includes the trait \u201copenness,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201cimagination,\u201d \u201cfeelings,\u201d \u201cactions,\u201d and \u201cideas.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201cpractical,\u201d \u201cconventional,\u201d and \u201cprefers routine,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201ccurious,\u201d \u201cwide range of interests,\u201d and \u201cindependent.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cconscientiousness,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201ccompetence,\u201d \u201cself-discipline,\u201d \u201cthoughtfulness,\u201d and \u201cgoal-driven.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201cimpulsive,\u201d \u201ccareless,\u201d and \u201cdisorganized,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201chardworking,\u201d \u201cdependable,\u201d and \u201corganized.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cextroversion,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201csociability,\u201d \u201cassertiveness,\u201d and \u201cemotional expression.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201cquiet,\u201d \u201creserved,\u201d and \u201cwithdrawn,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201coutgoing,\u201d \u201cwarm,\u201d and \u201cseeks adventure.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cagreeableness,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201ccooperative,\u201d \u201ctrustworthy,\u201d and \u201cgood-natured.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201ccritical,\u201d \u201cuncooperative,\u201d and \u201csuspicious,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201chelpful,\u201d \u201ctrusting,\u201d and \u201cempathetic.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cneuroticism,\u201d which is described as \u201ctendency toward unstable emotions.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201ccalm,\u201d \u201ceven-tempered,\u201d and \u201csecure,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201canxious,\u201d \u201cunhappy,\u201d and \u201cprone to negative emotions.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"769\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> In the Five Factor Model, each person has five traits, each scored on a continuum from high to low. In the center column, notice that the first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm4980480\">The Big Five personality factors each represent a range between two extremes. In reality, most of us tend to lie somewhere midway along the continuum of each factor, rather than at polar ends. It\u2019s important to note that the Big Five traits are relatively stable over our lifespan, with some tendency for the traits to increase or decrease slightly. Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers (Donnellan &amp; Lucas, 2008). Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years (Terracciano, McCrae, Brant, &amp; Costa, 2005). Neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age (Donnellan &amp; Lucas; Terracciano et al.). Additionally, The Big Five traits have been shown to exist across ethnicities, cultures, and ages, and may have substantial biological and genetic components (Jang, Livesley, &amp; Vernon, 1996; Jang et al., 2006; McCrae &amp; Costa, 1997; Schmitt et al., 2007).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp7808\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<h4><em><strong>Link to Learning<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp88256\">To find out about your personality and where you fall on the Big Five traits, follow this <a href=\"http:\/\/www.outofservice.com\/bigfive\/\" target=\"_blank\">link<\/a> to take the Big Five personality test.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp2003600\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp5682064\">Trait theorists attempt to explain our personality by identifying our stable characteristics and ways of behaving. They have identified important dimensions of personality. The Five Factor Model is the most widely accepted trait theory today. The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These traits occur along a continuum.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp1343760\" class=\"review-questions\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.com\/assessments\/857\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm5609840\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Self Check Questions<\/h3>\r\n<section id=\"self-check-questions\"><section id=\"fs-idm5609840\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Critical Thinking Questions<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp1975712\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp240048\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm44544\">1. How stable are the Big Five traits over one\u2019s lifespan?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm69504\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm4494848\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp4919568\">2. Compare the personality of someone who scores high on agreeableness to someone who scores low on agreeableness.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp176800\" class=\"personal-application\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Personal Application Questions<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm3655648\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp5124688\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp5124816\">3. Review the Big Five personality traits shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_07_BigFive\">[link]<\/a>. On which areas would you expect you\u2019d score high? In which areas does the low score more accurately describe you?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/div>\r\n<h3><\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\"><section id=\"self-check-answers\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp2025696\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n1. The Big Five traits are relatively stable over our lifespan with a tendency for the traits to increase or decrease slightly. Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers. Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years. However, neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp2025824\">2. A person with a high score on agreeableness is typically pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative. They may be difficult with which to work.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<h3><\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\"><section id=\"glossary\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp361552\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>Five Factor Model\u00a0 <\/strong><\/span>theory that personality is composed of five factors or traits, including openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp4910448\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>traits\u00a0 <\/strong><\/span>characteristic ways of behaving<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss early trait theories of Cattell and Eysenck<\/li>\n<li>Discuss the Big Five factors and describe someone who is high and low on each of the five traits<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp126272\">Trait theorists believe personality can be understood via the approach that all people have certain <span data-type=\"term\">traits<\/span>, or characteristic ways of behaving. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or even-tempered? Early trait theorists tried to describe all human personality traits. For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport (Allport &amp; Odbert, 1936), found 4,500 words in the English language that could describe people. He organized these personality traits into three categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. A cardinal trait is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence your life\u2014such as Ebenezer Scrooge\u2019s greed and Mother Theresa\u2019s altruism. Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits. Central traits are those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy). Secondary traits are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. For example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always orders her salad dressing on the side. And you\u2014although not normally an anxious person\u2014feel nervous before making a speech in front of your English class.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp516400\">In an effort to make the list of traits more manageable, Raymond Cattell (1946, 1957) narrowed down the list to about 171 traits. However, saying that a trait is either present or absent does not accurately reflect a person\u2019s uniqueness, because all of our personalities are actually made up of the same traits; we differ only in the degree to which each trait is expressed. Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Table_11_07_01\">[link]<\/a>). He developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to others you are. If you score low on this index, you tend to be more distant and cold. A high score on this index signifies you are supportive and comforting.<\/p>\n<table id=\"Table_11_07_01\" summary=\"A three column table compares low scores and high scores for personality factors measured by the 16PF Questionnaire. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cFactor,\u201d Low Score,\u201d and \u201cHigh Score.\u201d The first row contains \u201cwarmth; reserved, detached; and outgoing, supportive.\u201d The second row contains \u201cintellect; concrete thinker; and analytical.\u201d The third row contains \u201cemotional stability; moody, irritable; and stable, calm.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201caggressiveness; docile, submissive; and controlling, dominant.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cliveliness; somber, prudent; and adventurous, spontaneous.\u201d The sixth row contains \u201cdutifulness; unreliable; and conscientious.\u201d The seventh row contains \u201csocial assertiveness; shy, restrained; and uninhibited, bold.\u201d The eighth row contains \u201csensitivity; tough-minded; and sensitive, caring.\u201d The ninth row contains \u201cparanoia; trusting; and suspicious.\u201d The tenth row contains \u201cabstractness; conventional; and imaginative.\u201d The eleventh row contains \u201cintroversion; open, straightforward; and private, shrewd.\u201d The twelfth row contains \u201canxiety; confident; and apprehensive.\u201d The thirteenth row contains \u201copenmindedness; closeminded, traditional; and curious, experimental.\u201d The fourteenth row contains \u201cindependence; outgoing, social; and self-sufficient.\u201d The fifteenth row contains \u201cperfectionism; disorganized, casual; and organized, precise.\u201d The sixteenth row contains \u201ctension; relaxed; and stressed.\u201d\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Personality Factors Measured by the 16PF Questionnaire<\/span><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Factor<\/th>\n<th>Low Score<\/th>\n<th>High Score<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Warmth<\/td>\n<td>Reserved, detached<\/td>\n<td>Outgoing, supportive<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Intellect<\/td>\n<td>Concrete thinker<\/td>\n<td>Analytical<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Emotional stability<\/td>\n<td>Moody, irritable<\/td>\n<td>Stable, calm<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Aggressiveness<\/td>\n<td>Docile, submissive<\/td>\n<td>Controlling, dominant<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Liveliness<\/td>\n<td>Somber, prudent<\/td>\n<td>Adventurous, spontaneous<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Dutifulness<\/td>\n<td>Unreliable<\/td>\n<td>Conscientious<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Social assertiveness<\/td>\n<td>Shy, restrained<\/td>\n<td>Uninhibited, bold<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Sensitivity<\/td>\n<td>Tough-minded<\/td>\n<td>Sensitive, caring<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Paranoia<\/td>\n<td>Trusting<\/td>\n<td>Suspicious<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Abstractness<\/td>\n<td>Conventional<\/td>\n<td>Imaginative<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Introversion<\/td>\n<td>Open, straightforward<\/td>\n<td>Private, shrewd<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Anxiety<\/td>\n<td>Confident<\/td>\n<td>Apprehensive<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Openmindedness<\/td>\n<td>Closeminded, traditional<\/td>\n<td>Curious, experimental<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Independence<\/td>\n<td>Outgoing, social<\/td>\n<td>Self-sufficient<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Perfectionism<\/td>\n<td>Disorganized, casual<\/td>\n<td>Organized, precise<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Tension<\/td>\n<td>Relaxed<\/td>\n<td>Stressed<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div id=\"fs-idp132800\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<p><em><strong>Link to Learning<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp1257472\">Follow this <a href=\"http:\/\/personality-testing.info\/tests\/16PF.php\" target=\"_blank\">link<\/a> to an assessment based on Cattell\u2019s 16PF questionnaire to see which personality traits dominate your personality.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp311296\">Psychologists Hans and Sybil <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Eysenck<\/span> were personality theorists (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_07_Eysenck\">[link]<\/a>) who focused on <span data-type=\"term\">temperament<\/span>, the inborn, genetically based personality differences that you studied earlier in the chapter. They believed personality is largely governed by biology. The Eysencks (Eysenck, 1990, 1992; Eysenck &amp; Eysenck, 1963) viewed people as having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion\/introversion and neuroticism\/stability.<\/p>\n<figure><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"Figure_11_07_Eysenck\"><figcaption><\/figcaption><div style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225020\/CNX_Psych_11_04_Eysenck.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Hans and Sybil Eysenck together.\u201d\" width=\"325\" height=\"448\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hans and Sybil Eysenck believed that our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance. (credit: &#8220;Sirswindon&#8221;\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp1309824\">According to their theory, people high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, whereas people high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others. In the neuroticism\/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable. Based on these two dimensions, the Eysencks\u2019 theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_04_Quadrants\">[link]<\/a>).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure_11_04_Quadrants\"><figcaption><\/figcaption><div style=\"width: 741px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225022\/CNX_Psych_11_04_Quadrants.jpg\" alt=\"A circle is divided vertically and horizontally into four sections by lines with arrows at the ends. Clockwise from the top, the arrows are labeled \u201cUnstable Emotions (Neurotic),\u201d \u201cExtroverted Personality,\u201d \u201cStable Emotions,\u201d and \u201cIntroverted Personality.\u201d The arcs around the perimeter of the circle, clockwise beginning with the top right segment are labeled \u201cCholeric,\u201d \u201cSanguine,\u201d \u201cPhlegmatic,\u201d and \u201cMelancholic.\u201d The sections inside each arc contain descriptive words. Inside the Choleric arc are the words \u201ctouchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, impulsive, and active.\u201d Inside the Sanguine arc are the words \u201csociable, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, and carefree.\u201d Inside the Phlegmatic arc are the words \u201cpassive, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, and calm.\u201d Inside the Melancholic arc are the words \u201cmoody, anxious, rigid, pessimistic, unsociable, and quiet.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"598\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Eysencks described two factors to account for variations in our personalities: extroversion\/introversion and emotional stability\/instability.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp1255168\">Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus superego control (Eysenck, Eysenck &amp; Barrett, 1985). In this dimension, people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control\u2014they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional (Eysenck, Eysenck &amp; Barrett, 1985).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp374480\">While Cattell\u2019s 16 factors may be too broad, the Eysenck\u2019s two-factor system has been criticized for being too narrow. Another personality theory, called the <span data-type=\"term\">Five Factor Model<\/span>, effectively hits a middle ground, with its five factors referred to as the Big Five personality traits. It is the most popular theory in personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the basic trait dimensions (Funder, 2001). The five traits are openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_07_BigFive\">[link]<\/a>). A helpful way to remember the traits is by using the mnemonic OCEAN.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp5119312\">In the Five Factor Model, each person has each trait, but they occur along a spectrum. Openness to experience is characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this trait tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests. Conscientiousness is characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior). People who score high on this trait are hardworking and dependable. Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and academic success (Akomolafe, 2013; Chamorro-Premuzic &amp; Furnham, 2008; Conrad &amp; Patry, 2012; Noftle &amp; Robins, 2007; Wagerman &amp; Funder, 2007). Extroversion is characterized by sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional expression. People who score high on this trait are usually described as outgoing and warm. Not surprisingly, people who score high on both extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature (Tok, 2011). The fourth trait is agreeableness, which is the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on this trait actually earned more money than men who were considered more agreeable (Judge, Livingston, &amp; Hurst, 2012). The last of the Big Five traits is neuroticism, which is the tendency to experience negative emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile. Watson and Clark (1984) found that people reporting high levels of neuroticism also tend to report feeling anxious and unhappy. In contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure_11_07_BigFive\"><figcaption><\/figcaption><div style=\"width: 741px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225023\/CNX_Psych_11_07_BigFive.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram includes five vertically stacked arrows, which point to the left and right. A dimension's first letter, name, and description are included inside of each arrow. A box to the left of each arrow includes traits associated with a low score for that arrow's dimension. A box to the right of each arrow includes traits associated with a high score for that arrow's dimension. The top arrow includes the trait \u201copenness,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201cimagination,\u201d \u201cfeelings,\u201d \u201cactions,\u201d and \u201cideas.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201cpractical,\u201d \u201cconventional,\u201d and \u201cprefers routine,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201ccurious,\u201d \u201cwide range of interests,\u201d and \u201cindependent.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cconscientiousness,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201ccompetence,\u201d \u201cself-discipline,\u201d \u201cthoughtfulness,\u201d and \u201cgoal-driven.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201cimpulsive,\u201d \u201ccareless,\u201d and \u201cdisorganized,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201chardworking,\u201d \u201cdependable,\u201d and \u201corganized.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cextroversion,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201csociability,\u201d \u201cassertiveness,\u201d and \u201cemotional expression.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201cquiet,\u201d \u201creserved,\u201d and \u201cwithdrawn,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201coutgoing,\u201d \u201cwarm,\u201d and \u201cseeks adventure.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cagreeableness,\u201d which is described with the words, \u201ccooperative,\u201d \u201ctrustworthy,\u201d and \u201cgood-natured.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201ccritical,\u201d \u201cuncooperative,\u201d and \u201csuspicious,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201chelpful,\u201d \u201ctrusting,\u201d and \u201cempathetic.\u201d The next arrow includes the trait \u201cneuroticism,\u201d which is described as \u201ctendency toward unstable emotions.\u201d The box to the left of that arrow includes the words, \u201ccalm,\u201d \u201ceven-tempered,\u201d and \u201csecure,\u201d while the box to the right of that arrow includes the words, \u201canxious,\u201d \u201cunhappy,\u201d and \u201cprone to negative emotions.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"769\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">In the Five Factor Model, each person has five traits, each scored on a continuum from high to low. In the center column, notice that the first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idm4980480\">The Big Five personality factors each represent a range between two extremes. In reality, most of us tend to lie somewhere midway along the continuum of each factor, rather than at polar ends. It\u2019s important to note that the Big Five traits are relatively stable over our lifespan, with some tendency for the traits to increase or decrease slightly. Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers (Donnellan &amp; Lucas, 2008). Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years (Terracciano, McCrae, Brant, &amp; Costa, 2005). Neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age (Donnellan &amp; Lucas; Terracciano et al.). Additionally, The Big Five traits have been shown to exist across ethnicities, cultures, and ages, and may have substantial biological and genetic components (Jang, Livesley, &amp; Vernon, 1996; Jang et al., 2006; McCrae &amp; Costa, 1997; Schmitt et al., 2007).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp7808\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<h4><em><strong>Link to Learning<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp88256\">To find out about your personality and where you fall on the Big Five traits, follow this <a href=\"http:\/\/www.outofservice.com\/bigfive\/\" target=\"_blank\">link<\/a> to take the Big Five personality test.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idp2003600\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp5682064\">Trait theorists attempt to explain our personality by identifying our stable characteristics and ways of behaving. They have identified important dimensions of personality. The Five Factor Model is the most widely accepted trait theory today. The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These traits occur along a continuum.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp1343760\" class=\"review-questions\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/857.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=857&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/chapter\/trait-theorists\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm5609840\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Self Check Questions<\/h3>\n<section id=\"self-check-questions\">\n<section id=\"fs-idm5609840\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Critical Thinking Questions<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<div id=\"fs-idp1975712\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp240048\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm44544\">1. How stable are the Big Five traits over one\u2019s lifespan?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm69504\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm4494848\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp4919568\">2. Compare the personality of someone who scores high on agreeableness to someone who scores low on agreeableness.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp176800\" class=\"personal-application\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Personal Application Questions<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<div id=\"fs-idm3655648\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp5124688\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp5124816\">3. Review the Big Five personality traits shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_11_07_BigFive\">[link]<\/a>. On which areas would you expect you\u2019d score high? In which areas does the low score more accurately describe you?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<section id=\"self-check-answers\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idp2025696\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p>1. The Big Five traits are relatively stable over our lifespan with a tendency for the traits to increase or decrease slightly. Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our personal relationships and careers. Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years. However, neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp2025824\">2. A person with a high score on agreeableness is typically pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy and good-natured. People who score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative. They may be difficult with which to work.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<section id=\"glossary\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idp361552\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>Five Factor Model\u00a0 <\/strong><\/span>theory that personality is composed of five factors or traits, including openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp4910448\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>traits\u00a0 <\/strong><\/span>characteristic ways of behaving<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-304\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":18,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psychology\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-304","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":521,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/304","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/18"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/304\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1713,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/304\/revisions\/1713"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/521"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/304\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=304"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=304"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=304"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=304"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}