Appraisal-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\r\nAppraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive) strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think, for example: employing\u00a0denial<\/a>, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way they think about a problem by altering their\u00a0goals<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0values<\/a>, such as by seeing the\u00a0humor<\/a>\u00a0in a situation: \"some have suggested that humor may play a greater role as a stress moderator among women than men\".[12]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nAdaptive behavioural coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\r\nPeople using problem-focused strategies try to deal with the cause of their problem. They do this by finding out\u00a0information<\/a>\u00a0on the problem and learning new skills to manage the problem. Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing or eliminating the source of the stress. The three problem-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus are: taking control, information seeking, and evaluating the pros and cons. However, problem-focused coping may not be necessarily adaptive, especially in the uncontrollable case that one cannot make the problem go away.[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup>\r\nEmotion-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\r\nEmotion-focused strategies involve:\r\n\r\n \t- releasing pent-up emotions<\/li>\r\n \t
- distracting oneself[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
- managing hostile feelings<\/li>\r\n \t
- meditating<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
- mindfulness practices\u00a0[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
- using systematic relaxation procedures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEmotion-focused coping \"is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the perception of stress\".[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0are:\r\n
\r\n \t- disclaiming<\/li>\r\n \t
- escape-avoidance<\/li>\r\n \t
- accepting responsibility or blame<\/li>\r\n \t
- exercising self-control<\/li>\r\n \t
- and positive reappraisal.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEmotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This mechanism can be applied through a variety of ways, such as:\r\n
\r\n \t- seeking social support<\/li>\r\n \t
- reappraising the stressor in a positive light<\/li>\r\n \t
- accepting responsibility<\/li>\r\n \t
- using avoidance<\/li>\r\n \t
- exercising self-control<\/li>\r\n \t
- and distancing.[15]<\/a><\/sup>[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention away from it.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one).[17]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however they can be detrimental when used over an extended period. Positive emotion-focused mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with beneficial outcomes.[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Emotional approach coping<\/a>\u00a0is one form of emotion-focused coping in which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Other examples include relaxation training through deep breathing, meditation, yoga, music and art therapy, and aromatherapy,[20]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as grounding, which uses physical sensations or mental distractions to refocus from the stressor to present.[21]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
Reactive and proactive coping<\/span><\/h3>\r\nMost coping is reactive in that the coping is in response to stressors. Anticipating and reacting to a future stressor is known as\u00a0proactive coping<\/i>\u00a0or future-oriented coping.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anticipation<\/a>\u00a0is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.\r\nSocial coping<\/span><\/h3>\r\nSocial coping<\/i>\u00a0recognises that individuals are bedded within a social environment, which can be stressful, but also is the source of coping resources, such as seeking\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0from others.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nHumor<\/span><\/h3>\r\nHumor used as a positive coping strategy may have useful benefits in relation to mental health and well-being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often minimized. This coping method corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be an indicator of mental health.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs\/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A person of the deceased family member may resort to making jokes of when the deceased person used to give unwanted \"wet willies\" (term used for when a person sticks their finger inside their mouth then inserts the finger into another person's ear) to any unwilling participant. A person might also find comedic relief with others around irrational possible outcomes for the deceased funeral service. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support and interaction from others around the loss.[25]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n<\/span>Negative techniques (maladaptive coping or non-coping)<\/span><\/h3>\r\nWhereas adaptive coping strategies improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique (also termed non-coping) will just reduce symptoms while maintaining or strengthening the stressor. Maladaptive techniques are only effective as a short-term rather than long-term coping process.\r\n\r\nExamples of maladaptive behavior strategies include\u00a0dissociation<\/a>,\u00a0sensitization<\/a>,\u00a0safety behaviors<\/a>,\u00a0anxious avoidance<\/a>,\u00a0rationalisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0escape<\/a>\u00a0(including\u00a0self-medication<\/a>).\r\n\r\nThese coping strategies interfere with the person's ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the associated\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.\r\n\r\nDissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with\u00a0post traumatic stress syndrome<\/a>.\r\n\r\nSensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and\/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.\r\n\r\nSafety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.\r\n\r\nRationalisation is the practice of attempting to use reasoning to minimise the severity of an incident, or avoid approaching it in ways that could cause\u00a0psychological trauma<\/a>\u00a0or stress. It most commonly manifests in the form of making excuses for the behaviour of the person engaging in the rationalisation, or others involved in the situation the person is attempting to rationalise.\r\n\r\nAnxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the most common method.\r\n\r\nEscape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety.[26]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nFurther examples<\/span><\/h3>\r\nFurther examples of coping strategies include[27]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0emotional or instrumental support, self-distraction,\u00a0denial<\/a>,\u00a0substance use<\/a>,\u00a0self-blame<\/a>, behavioral disengagement and the use of drugs or alcohol.[28]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nMany people think that\u00a0meditation<\/a>\u00a0\"not only calms our emotions, but...makes us feel more 'together'\", as too can \"the kind of prayer in which you're trying to achieve an inner quietness and peace\".[29]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nLow-effort syndrome or low-effort coping refers to the coping responses of a person refusing to work hard. For example, a student at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe if they put in effort it could unveil their flaws.\u00a0[30]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\n \r\nGender differences<\/span><\/h2>\r\nGender differences in coping strategies are the ways in which men and women differ in managing\u00a0psychological stress<\/a>. There is evidence that males often develop stress due to their careers, whereas females often encounter stress due to issues in interpersonal relationships.[47]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Early studies indicated that \"there were gender differences in the sources of stressors, but gender differences in coping were relatively small after controlling for the source of stressors\";[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and more recent work has similarly revealed \"small differences between women's and men's coping strategies when studying individuals in similar situations.\"[49]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nIn general, such differences as exist indicate that women tend to employ emotion-focused coping and the \"tend-and-befriend<\/a>\" response to stress, whereas men tend to use problem-focused coping and the \"fight-or-flight<\/a>\" response, perhaps because societal standards encourage men to be more individualistic, while women are often expected to be\u00a0interpersonal<\/a>. An alternative explanation for the aforementioned differences involves genetic factors. The degree to which genetic factors and social conditioning influence behavior, is the subject of ongoing debate.[50]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nPhysiological basis<\/span><\/h2>\r\nHormones also play a part in stress management.\u00a0Cortisol<\/a>, a stress hormone, was found to be elevated in males during stressful situations. In females, however, cortisol levels were decreased in stressful situations, and instead, an increase in\u00a0limbic<\/a>\u00a0activity was discovered. Many researchers believe that these results underlie the reasons why men administer a\u00a0fight-or-flight<\/a>\u00a0reaction to stress; whereas, females have a\u00a0tend-and-befriend<\/a>\u00a0reaction.[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The \"fight-or-flight\" response activates the\u00a0sympathetic nervous system<\/a>\u00a0in the form of increased focus levels, adrenaline, and epinephrine. Conversely, the \"tend-and-befriend\" reaction refers to the tendency of women to protect their offspring and relatives. Although these two reactions support a genetic basis to differences in behavior, one should not assume that in general females cannot implement \"fight-or-flight\" behavior or that males cannot implement \"tend-and-befriend\" behavior. Additionally, this study implied differing health impacts for each gender as a result of the contrasting stress-processes.\r\n\r\n\r\nWhat can we do to help Americans cope with chronic stress? Here is some of the advice that APA offers on its public website:\r\n\r\n \t- Identify what's causing stress and take action.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Build strong, positive relationships: Connect with supportive friends and family members when you're having a difficult time.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Get regular exercise, eat nourishing food and participate in activities you enjoy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Stay focused on the positive and avoid negative energy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoid drugs and alcohol.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Rest your mind: Sleep, do yoga, meditate and perform relaxation exercises that can help restore energy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Get help from a psychologist when you're overwhelmed.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n ","rendered":"
![\"Coping](\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/326669814\/figure\/fig2\/AS:653346457272320@1532781342172\/Coping-Process-Taylor-2011.png\")
<\/p>\n
Types of coping strategies<\/span><\/h2>\nHundreds of coping strategies have been identified.[6]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Classification of these strategies into a broader architecture has not been agreed upon. Researchers try to group coping responses rationally, empirically by factor analysis, or through a blend of both techniques.[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup>\u00a0In the early days, Folkman and\u00a0Lazarus<\/a>\u00a0split the coping strategies into four groups, namely problem-focused, emotion-focused, support-seeking, and meaning-making coping.[7]<\/a><\/sup>[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup>\u00a0Weiten has identified four types of coping strategies:[1]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0appraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive), problem-focused (adaptive behavioral), emotion-focused, and occupation-focused coping. Billings and Moos added avoidance coping as one of the emotion-focused coping.[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some scholars have questioned the psychometric validity of forced categorisation as those strategies are not independent to each other.[7]<\/a><\/sup>:753<\/sup>\u00a0Besides, in reality, people can adopt multiple coping strategies simultaneously.<\/p>\nTypically, people use a mixture of several coping strategies, which may change over time. All these strategies can prove useful, but some claim that those using problem-focused coping strategies will adjust better to\u00a0life<\/a>.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Problem-focused coping mechanisms may allow an individual greater perceived control over their problem, whereas emotion-focused coping may sometimes lead to a reduction in perceived control (maladaptive coping).<\/p>\nLazarus “notes the connection between his idea of ‘defensive reappraisals’ or cognitive coping and\u00a0Freud<\/a>‘s concept of ‘ego-defenses'”,[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0coping strategies thus overlapping with a person’s\u00a0defense mechanisms<\/a>.<\/p>\nAppraisal-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\nAppraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive) strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think, for example: employing\u00a0denial<\/a>, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way they think about a problem by altering their\u00a0goals<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0values<\/a>, such as by seeing the\u00a0humor<\/a>\u00a0in a situation: “some have suggested that humor may play a greater role as a stress moderator among women than men”.[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\nAdaptive behavioural coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\nPeople using problem-focused strategies try to deal with the cause of their problem. They do this by finding out\u00a0information<\/a>\u00a0on the problem and learning new skills to manage the problem. Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing or eliminating the source of the stress. The three problem-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus are: taking control, information seeking, and evaluating the pros and cons. However, problem-focused coping may not be necessarily adaptive, especially in the uncontrollable case that one cannot make the problem go away.[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup><\/p>\nEmotion-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\nEmotion-focused strategies involve:<\/p>\n
\n- releasing pent-up emotions<\/li>\n
- distracting oneself[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup><\/li>\n
- managing hostile feelings<\/li>\n
- meditating<\/a><\/li>\n
- mindfulness practices\u00a0[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n
- using systematic relaxation procedures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Emotion-focused coping “is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the perception of stress”.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0are:<\/p>\n\n- disclaiming<\/li>\n
- escape-avoidance<\/li>\n
- accepting responsibility or blame<\/li>\n
- exercising self-control<\/li>\n
- and positive reappraisal.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Emotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This mechanism can be applied through a variety of ways, such as:<\/p>\n\n- seeking social support<\/li>\n
- reappraising the stressor in a positive light<\/li>\n
- accepting responsibility<\/li>\n
- using avoidance<\/li>\n
- exercising self-control<\/li>\n
- and distancing.[15]<\/a><\/sup>[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
The focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention away from it.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one).[17]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however they can be detrimental when used over an extended period. Positive emotion-focused mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with beneficial outcomes.[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Emotional approach coping<\/a>\u00a0is one form of emotion-focused coping in which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Other examples include relaxation training through deep breathing, meditation, yoga, music and art therapy, and aromatherapy,[20]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as grounding, which uses physical sensations or mental distractions to refocus from the stressor to present.[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\nReactive and proactive coping<\/span><\/h3>\nMost coping is reactive in that the coping is in response to stressors. Anticipating and reacting to a future stressor is known as\u00a0proactive coping<\/i>\u00a0or future-oriented coping.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anticipation<\/a>\u00a0is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.<\/p>\nSocial coping<\/span><\/h3>\nSocial coping<\/i>\u00a0recognises that individuals are bedded within a social environment, which can be stressful, but also is the source of coping resources, such as seeking\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0from others.[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\nHumor<\/span><\/h3>\nHumor used as a positive coping strategy may have useful benefits in relation to mental health and well-being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often minimized. This coping method corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be an indicator of mental health.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs\/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A person of the deceased family member may resort to making jokes of when the deceased person used to give unwanted “wet willies” (term used for when a person sticks their finger inside their mouth then inserts the finger into another person’s ear) to any unwilling participant. A person might also find comedic relief with others around irrational possible outcomes for the deceased funeral service. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support and interaction from others around the loss.[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<\/span>Negative techniques (maladaptive coping or non-coping)<\/span><\/h3>\nWhereas adaptive coping strategies improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique (also termed non-coping) will just reduce symptoms while maintaining or strengthening the stressor. Maladaptive techniques are only effective as a short-term rather than long-term coping process.<\/p>\n
Examples of maladaptive behavior strategies include\u00a0dissociation<\/a>,\u00a0sensitization<\/a>,\u00a0safety behaviors<\/a>,\u00a0anxious avoidance<\/a>,\u00a0rationalisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0escape<\/a>\u00a0(including\u00a0self-medication<\/a>).<\/p>\nThese coping strategies interfere with the person’s ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the associated\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.<\/p>\nDissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with\u00a0post traumatic stress syndrome<\/a>.<\/p>\nSensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and\/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.<\/p>\n
Safety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.<\/p>\n
Rationalisation is the practice of attempting to use reasoning to minimise the severity of an incident, or avoid approaching it in ways that could cause\u00a0psychological trauma<\/a>\u00a0or stress. It most commonly manifests in the form of making excuses for the behaviour of the person engaging in the rationalisation, or others involved in the situation the person is attempting to rationalise.<\/p>\nAnxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the most common method.<\/p>\n
Escape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety.[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n
Emotion-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\r\nEmotion-focused strategies involve:\r\n\r\n \t- releasing pent-up emotions<\/li>\r\n \t
- distracting oneself[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
- managing hostile feelings<\/li>\r\n \t
- meditating<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t
- mindfulness practices\u00a0[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
- using systematic relaxation procedures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEmotion-focused coping \"is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the perception of stress\".[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0are:\r\n
\r\n \t- disclaiming<\/li>\r\n \t
- escape-avoidance<\/li>\r\n \t
- accepting responsibility or blame<\/li>\r\n \t
- exercising self-control<\/li>\r\n \t
- and positive reappraisal.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEmotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This mechanism can be applied through a variety of ways, such as:\r\n
\r\n \t- seeking social support<\/li>\r\n \t
- reappraising the stressor in a positive light<\/li>\r\n \t
- accepting responsibility<\/li>\r\n \t
- using avoidance<\/li>\r\n \t
- exercising self-control<\/li>\r\n \t
- and distancing.[15]<\/a><\/sup>[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention away from it.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one).[17]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however they can be detrimental when used over an extended period. Positive emotion-focused mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with beneficial outcomes.[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Emotional approach coping<\/a>\u00a0is one form of emotion-focused coping in which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Other examples include relaxation training through deep breathing, meditation, yoga, music and art therapy, and aromatherapy,[20]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as grounding, which uses physical sensations or mental distractions to refocus from the stressor to present.[21]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
Reactive and proactive coping<\/span><\/h3>\r\nMost coping is reactive in that the coping is in response to stressors. Anticipating and reacting to a future stressor is known as\u00a0proactive coping<\/i>\u00a0or future-oriented coping.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anticipation<\/a>\u00a0is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.\r\nSocial coping<\/span><\/h3>\r\nSocial coping<\/i>\u00a0recognises that individuals are bedded within a social environment, which can be stressful, but also is the source of coping resources, such as seeking\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0from others.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nHumor<\/span><\/h3>\r\nHumor used as a positive coping strategy may have useful benefits in relation to mental health and well-being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often minimized. This coping method corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be an indicator of mental health.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs\/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A person of the deceased family member may resort to making jokes of when the deceased person used to give unwanted \"wet willies\" (term used for when a person sticks their finger inside their mouth then inserts the finger into another person's ear) to any unwilling participant. A person might also find comedic relief with others around irrational possible outcomes for the deceased funeral service. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support and interaction from others around the loss.[25]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n<\/span>Negative techniques (maladaptive coping or non-coping)<\/span><\/h3>\r\nWhereas adaptive coping strategies improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique (also termed non-coping) will just reduce symptoms while maintaining or strengthening the stressor. Maladaptive techniques are only effective as a short-term rather than long-term coping process.\r\n\r\nExamples of maladaptive behavior strategies include\u00a0dissociation<\/a>,\u00a0sensitization<\/a>,\u00a0safety behaviors<\/a>,\u00a0anxious avoidance<\/a>,\u00a0rationalisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0escape<\/a>\u00a0(including\u00a0self-medication<\/a>).\r\n\r\nThese coping strategies interfere with the person's ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the associated\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.\r\n\r\nDissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with\u00a0post traumatic stress syndrome<\/a>.\r\n\r\nSensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and\/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.\r\n\r\nSafety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.\r\n\r\nRationalisation is the practice of attempting to use reasoning to minimise the severity of an incident, or avoid approaching it in ways that could cause\u00a0psychological trauma<\/a>\u00a0or stress. It most commonly manifests in the form of making excuses for the behaviour of the person engaging in the rationalisation, or others involved in the situation the person is attempting to rationalise.\r\n\r\nAnxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the most common method.\r\n\r\nEscape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety.[26]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nFurther examples<\/span><\/h3>\r\nFurther examples of coping strategies include[27]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0emotional or instrumental support, self-distraction,\u00a0denial<\/a>,\u00a0substance use<\/a>,\u00a0self-blame<\/a>, behavioral disengagement and the use of drugs or alcohol.[28]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nMany people think that\u00a0meditation<\/a>\u00a0\"not only calms our emotions, but...makes us feel more 'together'\", as too can \"the kind of prayer in which you're trying to achieve an inner quietness and peace\".[29]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nLow-effort syndrome or low-effort coping refers to the coping responses of a person refusing to work hard. For example, a student at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe if they put in effort it could unveil their flaws.\u00a0[30]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\n \r\nGender differences<\/span><\/h2>\r\nGender differences in coping strategies are the ways in which men and women differ in managing\u00a0psychological stress<\/a>. There is evidence that males often develop stress due to their careers, whereas females often encounter stress due to issues in interpersonal relationships.[47]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Early studies indicated that \"there were gender differences in the sources of stressors, but gender differences in coping were relatively small after controlling for the source of stressors\";[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and more recent work has similarly revealed \"small differences between women's and men's coping strategies when studying individuals in similar situations.\"[49]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nIn general, such differences as exist indicate that women tend to employ emotion-focused coping and the \"tend-and-befriend<\/a>\" response to stress, whereas men tend to use problem-focused coping and the \"fight-or-flight<\/a>\" response, perhaps because societal standards encourage men to be more individualistic, while women are often expected to be\u00a0interpersonal<\/a>. An alternative explanation for the aforementioned differences involves genetic factors. The degree to which genetic factors and social conditioning influence behavior, is the subject of ongoing debate.[50]<\/a><\/sup>\r\nPhysiological basis<\/span><\/h2>\r\nHormones also play a part in stress management.\u00a0Cortisol<\/a>, a stress hormone, was found to be elevated in males during stressful situations. In females, however, cortisol levels were decreased in stressful situations, and instead, an increase in\u00a0limbic<\/a>\u00a0activity was discovered. Many researchers believe that these results underlie the reasons why men administer a\u00a0fight-or-flight<\/a>\u00a0reaction to stress; whereas, females have a\u00a0tend-and-befriend<\/a>\u00a0reaction.[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The \"fight-or-flight\" response activates the\u00a0sympathetic nervous system<\/a>\u00a0in the form of increased focus levels, adrenaline, and epinephrine. Conversely, the \"tend-and-befriend\" reaction refers to the tendency of women to protect their offspring and relatives. Although these two reactions support a genetic basis to differences in behavior, one should not assume that in general females cannot implement \"fight-or-flight\" behavior or that males cannot implement \"tend-and-befriend\" behavior. Additionally, this study implied differing health impacts for each gender as a result of the contrasting stress-processes.\r\n\r\n\r\nWhat can we do to help Americans cope with chronic stress? Here is some of the advice that APA offers on its public website:\r\n\r\n \t- Identify what's causing stress and take action.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Build strong, positive relationships: Connect with supportive friends and family members when you're having a difficult time.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Get regular exercise, eat nourishing food and participate in activities you enjoy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Stay focused on the positive and avoid negative energy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoid drugs and alcohol.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Rest your mind: Sleep, do yoga, meditate and perform relaxation exercises that can help restore energy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Get help from a psychologist when you're overwhelmed.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n ","rendered":"
<\/p>\n
Types of coping strategies<\/span><\/h2>\nHundreds of coping strategies have been identified.[6]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Classification of these strategies into a broader architecture has not been agreed upon. Researchers try to group coping responses rationally, empirically by factor analysis, or through a blend of both techniques.[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup>\u00a0In the early days, Folkman and\u00a0Lazarus<\/a>\u00a0split the coping strategies into four groups, namely problem-focused, emotion-focused, support-seeking, and meaning-making coping.[7]<\/a><\/sup>[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup>\u00a0Weiten has identified four types of coping strategies:[1]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0appraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive), problem-focused (adaptive behavioral), emotion-focused, and occupation-focused coping. Billings and Moos added avoidance coping as one of the emotion-focused coping.[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some scholars have questioned the psychometric validity of forced categorisation as those strategies are not independent to each other.[7]<\/a><\/sup>:753<\/sup>\u00a0Besides, in reality, people can adopt multiple coping strategies simultaneously.<\/p>\nTypically, people use a mixture of several coping strategies, which may change over time. All these strategies can prove useful, but some claim that those using problem-focused coping strategies will adjust better to\u00a0life<\/a>.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Problem-focused coping mechanisms may allow an individual greater perceived control over their problem, whereas emotion-focused coping may sometimes lead to a reduction in perceived control (maladaptive coping).<\/p>\nLazarus “notes the connection between his idea of ‘defensive reappraisals’ or cognitive coping and\u00a0Freud<\/a>‘s concept of ‘ego-defenses'”,[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0coping strategies thus overlapping with a person’s\u00a0defense mechanisms<\/a>.<\/p>\nAppraisal-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\nAppraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive) strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think, for example: employing\u00a0denial<\/a>, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way they think about a problem by altering their\u00a0goals<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0values<\/a>, such as by seeing the\u00a0humor<\/a>\u00a0in a situation: “some have suggested that humor may play a greater role as a stress moderator among women than men”.[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\nAdaptive behavioural coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\nPeople using problem-focused strategies try to deal with the cause of their problem. They do this by finding out\u00a0information<\/a>\u00a0on the problem and learning new skills to manage the problem. Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing or eliminating the source of the stress. The three problem-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus are: taking control, information seeking, and evaluating the pros and cons. However, problem-focused coping may not be necessarily adaptive, especially in the uncontrollable case that one cannot make the problem go away.[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup><\/p>\nEmotion-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\nEmotion-focused strategies involve:<\/p>\n
\n- releasing pent-up emotions<\/li>\n
- distracting oneself[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup><\/li>\n
- managing hostile feelings<\/li>\n
- meditating<\/a><\/li>\n
- mindfulness practices\u00a0[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n
- using systematic relaxation procedures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Emotion-focused coping “is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the perception of stress”.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0are:<\/p>\n\n- disclaiming<\/li>\n
- escape-avoidance<\/li>\n
- accepting responsibility or blame<\/li>\n
- exercising self-control<\/li>\n
- and positive reappraisal.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Emotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This mechanism can be applied through a variety of ways, such as:<\/p>\n\n- seeking social support<\/li>\n
- reappraising the stressor in a positive light<\/li>\n
- accepting responsibility<\/li>\n
- using avoidance<\/li>\n
- exercising self-control<\/li>\n
- and distancing.[15]<\/a><\/sup>[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
The focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention away from it.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one).[17]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however they can be detrimental when used over an extended period. Positive emotion-focused mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with beneficial outcomes.[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Emotional approach coping<\/a>\u00a0is one form of emotion-focused coping in which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Other examples include relaxation training through deep breathing, meditation, yoga, music and art therapy, and aromatherapy,[20]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as grounding, which uses physical sensations or mental distractions to refocus from the stressor to present.[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\nReactive and proactive coping<\/span><\/h3>\nMost coping is reactive in that the coping is in response to stressors. Anticipating and reacting to a future stressor is known as\u00a0proactive coping<\/i>\u00a0or future-oriented coping.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anticipation<\/a>\u00a0is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.<\/p>\nSocial coping<\/span><\/h3>\nSocial coping<\/i>\u00a0recognises that individuals are bedded within a social environment, which can be stressful, but also is the source of coping resources, such as seeking\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0from others.[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\nHumor<\/span><\/h3>\nHumor used as a positive coping strategy may have useful benefits in relation to mental health and well-being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often minimized. This coping method corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be an indicator of mental health.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs\/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A person of the deceased family member may resort to making jokes of when the deceased person used to give unwanted “wet willies” (term used for when a person sticks their finger inside their mouth then inserts the finger into another person’s ear) to any unwilling participant. A person might also find comedic relief with others around irrational possible outcomes for the deceased funeral service. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support and interaction from others around the loss.[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<\/span>Negative techniques (maladaptive coping or non-coping)<\/span><\/h3>\nWhereas adaptive coping strategies improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique (also termed non-coping) will just reduce symptoms while maintaining or strengthening the stressor. Maladaptive techniques are only effective as a short-term rather than long-term coping process.<\/p>\n
Examples of maladaptive behavior strategies include\u00a0dissociation<\/a>,\u00a0sensitization<\/a>,\u00a0safety behaviors<\/a>,\u00a0anxious avoidance<\/a>,\u00a0rationalisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0escape<\/a>\u00a0(including\u00a0self-medication<\/a>).<\/p>\nThese coping strategies interfere with the person’s ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the associated\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.<\/p>\nDissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with\u00a0post traumatic stress syndrome<\/a>.<\/p>\nSensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and\/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.<\/p>\n
Safety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.<\/p>\n
Rationalisation is the practice of attempting to use reasoning to minimise the severity of an incident, or avoid approaching it in ways that could cause\u00a0psychological trauma<\/a>\u00a0or stress. It most commonly manifests in the form of making excuses for the behaviour of the person engaging in the rationalisation, or others involved in the situation the person is attempting to rationalise.<\/p>\nAnxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the most common method.<\/p>\n
Escape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety.[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n
- \r\n \t
- disclaiming<\/li>\r\n \t
- escape-avoidance<\/li>\r\n \t
- accepting responsibility or blame<\/li>\r\n \t
- exercising self-control<\/li>\r\n \t
- and positive reappraisal.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEmotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This mechanism can be applied through a variety of ways, such as:\r\n
- \r\n \t
- seeking social support<\/li>\r\n \t
- reappraising the stressor in a positive light<\/li>\r\n \t
- accepting responsibility<\/li>\r\n \t
- using avoidance<\/li>\r\n \t
- exercising self-control<\/li>\r\n \t
- and distancing.[15]<\/a><\/sup>[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention away from it.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one).[17]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however they can be detrimental when used over an extended period. Positive emotion-focused mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with beneficial outcomes.[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Emotional approach coping<\/a>\u00a0is one form of emotion-focused coping in which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Other examples include relaxation training through deep breathing, meditation, yoga, music and art therapy, and aromatherapy,[20]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as grounding, which uses physical sensations or mental distractions to refocus from the stressor to present.[21]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
Reactive and proactive coping<\/span><\/h3>\r\nMost coping is reactive in that the coping is in response to stressors. Anticipating and reacting to a future stressor is known as\u00a0proactive coping<\/i>\u00a0or future-oriented coping.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anticipation<\/a>\u00a0is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.\r\n
Social coping<\/span><\/h3>\r\nSocial coping<\/i>\u00a0recognises that individuals are bedded within a social environment, which can be stressful, but also is the source of coping resources, such as seeking\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0from others.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
Humor<\/span><\/h3>\r\nHumor used as a positive coping strategy may have useful benefits in relation to mental health and well-being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often minimized. This coping method corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be an indicator of mental health.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs\/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A person of the deceased family member may resort to making jokes of when the deceased person used to give unwanted \"wet willies\" (term used for when a person sticks their finger inside their mouth then inserts the finger into another person's ear) to any unwilling participant. A person might also find comedic relief with others around irrational possible outcomes for the deceased funeral service. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support and interaction from others around the loss.[25]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
<\/span>Negative techniques (maladaptive coping or non-coping)<\/span><\/h3>\r\nWhereas adaptive coping strategies improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique (also termed non-coping) will just reduce symptoms while maintaining or strengthening the stressor. Maladaptive techniques are only effective as a short-term rather than long-term coping process.\r\n\r\nExamples of maladaptive behavior strategies include\u00a0dissociation<\/a>,\u00a0sensitization<\/a>,\u00a0safety behaviors<\/a>,\u00a0anxious avoidance<\/a>,\u00a0rationalisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0escape<\/a>\u00a0(including\u00a0self-medication<\/a>).\r\n\r\nThese coping strategies interfere with the person's ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the associated\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.\r\n\r\nDissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with\u00a0post traumatic stress syndrome<\/a>.\r\n\r\nSensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and\/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.\r\n\r\nSafety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.\r\n\r\nRationalisation is the practice of attempting to use reasoning to minimise the severity of an incident, or avoid approaching it in ways that could cause\u00a0psychological trauma<\/a>\u00a0or stress. It most commonly manifests in the form of making excuses for the behaviour of the person engaging in the rationalisation, or others involved in the situation the person is attempting to rationalise.\r\n\r\nAnxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the most common method.\r\n\r\nEscape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety.[26]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
Further examples<\/span><\/h3>\r\nFurther examples of coping strategies include[27]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0emotional or instrumental support, self-distraction,\u00a0denial<\/a>,\u00a0substance use<\/a>,\u00a0self-blame<\/a>, behavioral disengagement and the use of drugs or alcohol.[28]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nMany people think that\u00a0meditation<\/a>\u00a0\"not only calms our emotions, but...makes us feel more 'together'\", as too can \"the kind of prayer in which you're trying to achieve an inner quietness and peace\".[29]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nLow-effort syndrome or low-effort coping refers to the coping responses of a person refusing to work hard. For example, a student at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe if they put in effort it could unveil their flaws.\u00a0[30]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\n \r\n
Gender differences<\/span><\/h2>\r\nGender differences in coping strategies are the ways in which men and women differ in managing\u00a0psychological stress<\/a>. There is evidence that males often develop stress due to their careers, whereas females often encounter stress due to issues in interpersonal relationships.[47]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Early studies indicated that \"there were gender differences in the sources of stressors, but gender differences in coping were relatively small after controlling for the source of stressors\";[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and more recent work has similarly revealed \"small differences between women's and men's coping strategies when studying individuals in similar situations.\"[49]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nIn general, such differences as exist indicate that women tend to employ emotion-focused coping and the \"tend-and-befriend<\/a>\" response to stress, whereas men tend to use problem-focused coping and the \"fight-or-flight<\/a>\" response, perhaps because societal standards encourage men to be more individualistic, while women are often expected to be\u00a0interpersonal<\/a>. An alternative explanation for the aforementioned differences involves genetic factors. The degree to which genetic factors and social conditioning influence behavior, is the subject of ongoing debate.[50]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
Physiological basis<\/span><\/h2>\r\nHormones also play a part in stress management.\u00a0Cortisol<\/a>, a stress hormone, was found to be elevated in males during stressful situations. In females, however, cortisol levels were decreased in stressful situations, and instead, an increase in\u00a0limbic<\/a>\u00a0activity was discovered. Many researchers believe that these results underlie the reasons why men administer a\u00a0fight-or-flight<\/a>\u00a0reaction to stress; whereas, females have a\u00a0tend-and-befriend<\/a>\u00a0reaction.[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The \"fight-or-flight\" response activates the\u00a0sympathetic nervous system<\/a>\u00a0in the form of increased focus levels, adrenaline, and epinephrine. Conversely, the \"tend-and-befriend\" reaction refers to the tendency of women to protect their offspring and relatives. Although these two reactions support a genetic basis to differences in behavior, one should not assume that in general females cannot implement \"fight-or-flight\" behavior or that males cannot implement \"tend-and-befriend\" behavior. Additionally, this study implied differing health impacts for each gender as a result of the contrasting stress-processes.\r\n
\r\n\r\nWhat can we do to help Americans cope with chronic stress? Here is some of the advice that APA offers on its public website:\r\n- \r\n \t
- Identify what's causing stress and take action.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Build strong, positive relationships: Connect with supportive friends and family members when you're having a difficult time.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Get regular exercise, eat nourishing food and participate in activities you enjoy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Stay focused on the positive and avoid negative energy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoid drugs and alcohol.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Rest your mind: Sleep, do yoga, meditate and perform relaxation exercises that can help restore energy.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Get help from a psychologist when you're overwhelmed.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n ","rendered":"<\/p>\n
Types of coping strategies<\/span><\/h2>\n
Hundreds of coping strategies have been identified.[6]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Classification of these strategies into a broader architecture has not been agreed upon. Researchers try to group coping responses rationally, empirically by factor analysis, or through a blend of both techniques.[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup>\u00a0In the early days, Folkman and\u00a0Lazarus<\/a>\u00a0split the coping strategies into four groups, namely problem-focused, emotion-focused, support-seeking, and meaning-making coping.[7]<\/a><\/sup>[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup>\u00a0Weiten has identified four types of coping strategies:[1]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0appraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive), problem-focused (adaptive behavioral), emotion-focused, and occupation-focused coping. Billings and Moos added avoidance coping as one of the emotion-focused coping.[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some scholars have questioned the psychometric validity of forced categorisation as those strategies are not independent to each other.[7]<\/a><\/sup>:753<\/sup>\u00a0Besides, in reality, people can adopt multiple coping strategies simultaneously.<\/p>\n
Typically, people use a mixture of several coping strategies, which may change over time. All these strategies can prove useful, but some claim that those using problem-focused coping strategies will adjust better to\u00a0life<\/a>.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Problem-focused coping mechanisms may allow an individual greater perceived control over their problem, whereas emotion-focused coping may sometimes lead to a reduction in perceived control (maladaptive coping).<\/p>\n
Lazarus “notes the connection between his idea of ‘defensive reappraisals’ or cognitive coping and\u00a0Freud<\/a>‘s concept of ‘ego-defenses'”,[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0coping strategies thus overlapping with a person’s\u00a0defense mechanisms<\/a>.<\/p>\n
Appraisal-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\n
Appraisal-focused (adaptive cognitive) strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think, for example: employing\u00a0denial<\/a>, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way they think about a problem by altering their\u00a0goals<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0values<\/a>, such as by seeing the\u00a0humor<\/a>\u00a0in a situation: “some have suggested that humor may play a greater role as a stress moderator among women than men”.[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n
Adaptive behavioural coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\n
People using problem-focused strategies try to deal with the cause of their problem. They do this by finding out\u00a0information<\/a>\u00a0on the problem and learning new skills to manage the problem. Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing or eliminating the source of the stress. The three problem-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus are: taking control, information seeking, and evaluating the pros and cons. However, problem-focused coping may not be necessarily adaptive, especially in the uncontrollable case that one cannot make the problem go away.[8]<\/a><\/sup>:303<\/sup><\/p>\n
Emotion-focused coping strategies<\/span><\/h3>\n
Emotion-focused strategies involve:<\/p>\n
- \n
- releasing pent-up emotions<\/li>\n
- distracting oneself[7]<\/a><\/sup>:751<\/sup><\/li>\n
- managing hostile feelings<\/li>\n
- meditating<\/a><\/li>\n
- mindfulness practices\u00a0[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n
- using systematic relaxation procedures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Emotion-focused coping “is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the perception of stress”.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0are:<\/p>\n
- \n
- disclaiming<\/li>\n
- escape-avoidance<\/li>\n
- accepting responsibility or blame<\/li>\n
- exercising self-control<\/li>\n
- and positive reappraisal.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Emotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or preventing, the emotional components of a stressor.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This mechanism can be applied through a variety of ways, such as:<\/p>\n
- \n
- seeking social support<\/li>\n
- reappraising the stressor in a positive light<\/li>\n
- accepting responsibility<\/li>\n
- using avoidance<\/li>\n
- exercising self-control<\/li>\n
- and distancing.[15]<\/a><\/sup>[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
The focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention away from it.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For example, reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor. Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one).[17]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however they can be detrimental when used over an extended period. Positive emotion-focused mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with beneficial outcomes.[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Emotional approach coping<\/a>\u00a0is one form of emotion-focused coping in which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Other examples include relaxation training through deep breathing, meditation, yoga, music and art therapy, and aromatherapy,[20]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0as well as grounding, which uses physical sensations or mental distractions to refocus from the stressor to present.[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n
Reactive and proactive coping<\/span><\/h3>\n
Most coping is reactive in that the coping is in response to stressors. Anticipating and reacting to a future stressor is known as\u00a0proactive coping<\/i>\u00a0or future-oriented coping.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Anticipation<\/a>\u00a0is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.<\/p>\n
Social coping<\/span><\/h3>\n
Social coping<\/i>\u00a0recognises that individuals are bedded within a social environment, which can be stressful, but also is the source of coping resources, such as seeking\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0from others.[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n
Humor<\/span><\/h3>\n
Humor used as a positive coping strategy may have useful benefits in relation to mental health and well-being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often minimized. This coping method corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be an indicator of mental health.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Using humor in coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine laughs\/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive responses from other people.[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A person of the deceased family member may resort to making jokes of when the deceased person used to give unwanted “wet willies” (term used for when a person sticks their finger inside their mouth then inserts the finger into another person’s ear) to any unwilling participant. A person might also find comedic relief with others around irrational possible outcomes for the deceased funeral service. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support and interaction from others around the loss.[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n
<\/span>Negative techniques (maladaptive coping or non-coping)<\/span><\/h3>\n
Whereas adaptive coping strategies improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique (also termed non-coping) will just reduce symptoms while maintaining or strengthening the stressor. Maladaptive techniques are only effective as a short-term rather than long-term coping process.<\/p>\n
Examples of maladaptive behavior strategies include\u00a0dissociation<\/a>,\u00a0sensitization<\/a>,\u00a0safety behaviors<\/a>,\u00a0anxious avoidance<\/a>,\u00a0rationalisation<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0escape<\/a>\u00a0(including\u00a0self-medication<\/a>).<\/p>\n
These coping strategies interfere with the person’s ability to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the associated\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the disorder.<\/p>\n
Dissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with\u00a0post traumatic stress syndrome<\/a>.<\/p>\n
Sensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and\/or anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.<\/p>\n
Safety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.<\/p>\n
Rationalisation is the practice of attempting to use reasoning to minimise the severity of an incident, or avoid approaching it in ways that could cause\u00a0psychological trauma<\/a>\u00a0or stress. It most commonly manifests in the form of making excuses for the behaviour of the person engaging in the rationalisation, or others involved in the situation the person is attempting to rationalise.<\/p>\n
Anxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means. This is the most common method.<\/p>\n
Escape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at the first sign of anxiety.[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n