{"id":304,"date":"2021-03-22T17:19:59","date_gmt":"2021-03-22T17:19:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-healthpsychology\/?post_type=chapter&p=304"},"modified":"2021-03-22T17:19:59","modified_gmt":"2021-03-22T17:19:59","slug":"chronic-pain","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-healthpsychology\/chapter\/chronic-pain\/","title":{"raw":"Chronic Pain","rendered":"Chronic Pain"},"content":{"raw":"

<\/h1>\r\n
\r\n
Chronic<\/a>\u00a0pain<\/b>\u00a0is classified as\u00a0<\/span>pain<\/a>\u00a0that lasts longer than three to six months<\/span>[1]<\/a><\/sup>. In medicine, the distinction between\u00a0<\/span>acute<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>chronic<\/a>\u00a0pain is sometimes determined by the amount of time since onset. Two commonly used markers are pain that continues at 3 months and 6 months since onset,<\/span>[2]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0but some theorists and researchers have placed the transition from acute to chronic pain at 12 months.<\/span>[3]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Others apply the term\u00a0<\/span>acute<\/i>\u00a0to pain that lasts less than 30 days,\u00a0<\/span>chronic<\/i>\u00a0to pain of more than six months duration, and\u00a0<\/span>subacute<\/i>\u00a0to pain that lasts from one to six months.<\/span>[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A popular alternative definition of\u00a0<\/span>chronic pain<\/i>, involving no fixed duration, is \"pain that extends beyond the expected period of healing\".<\/span>[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/div>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n\r\nChronic pain may originate in the body, or in the brain or spinal cord. It is often difficult to treat. Epidemiological studies have found that 8% - 11.2% of people in various countries have chronic widespread pain.[5]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Various\u00a0non-opioid<\/a>\u00a0medicines are initially recommended to treat chronic pain, depending on whether the pain is due to tissue damage or is\u00a0neuropathic<\/a>.[6]<\/a><\/sup>[7]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Psychological treatments including\u00a0cognitive behavioral therapy<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0acceptance and commitment therapy<\/a>\u00a0may be effective for improving quality of life in those with chronic pain. Some people with chronic pain may benefit from\u00a0opioid<\/a>\u00a0treatment while others can be harmed by it.[8]<\/a><\/sup>[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In people with non-cancer pain, patients might try opioids only if there is no history of either\u00a0mental illness<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0substance use disorder<\/a>. Opioids for chronic pain should be stopped if they are not effective at treating the patient's pain.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nPeople with chronic pain tend to have higher rates of depression[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and although the exact connection between the comorbidities is unclear, a 2017 study on neuroplasticity found that \"injury sensory pathways of body pains have been shown to share the same brain regions involved in mood management.\"[12]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Chronic pain can contribute to decreased physical activity due to fear of making the pain worse. Pain intensity, pain control, and resilience to pain can be influenced by different levels and types of\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0that a person with chronic pain receives, and are also influenced by the person's\u00a0socioeconomic status<\/a>.\u00a0[13\r\n<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

Classification<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\r\n
Main article:\u00a0Pain \u00a7\u00a0Classification<\/a><\/div>\r\nThe\u00a0International Association for the Study of Pain<\/a>\u00a0defines chronic pain as pain with no biological value, that persists past normal tissue healing. The DSM-5 recognizes one chronic pain disorder, somatic symptom disorders. The criteria include pain lasting longer than six months.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThe International Classification of Disease, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11<\/a>) suggests seven categories for chronic pain.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Chronic primary pain: defined by 3 months of persistent pain in one or more regions of the body that is unexplainable by another pain condition.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Chronic cancer pain: defined as cancer or treatment related\u00a0visceral<\/a>\u00a0(within the internal organs),\u00a0musculoskeletal<\/a>, or bony pain.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Chronic post-traumatic pain: pain lasting 3 months after an injury or surgery, excluding infectious or pre-existing conditions.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Chronic neuropathic pain: pain caused by damage to the\u00a0somatosensory nervous system<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Chronic headache and\u00a0orofacial pain<\/a>: pain that originates in the head or face, and occurs for 50% or more days over a 3 months period.<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Chronic visceral pain: pain originating in an internal organ.<\/li>\r\n \t
  7. Chronic musculoskeletal pain: pain originating in the bones, muscles, joints or connective tissue.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nChronic pain may be divided into \"nociceptive<\/a>\" (caused by inflamed or damaged tissue activating specialized pain sensors called\u00a0nociceptors<\/a>), and \"neuropathic<\/a>\" (caused by damage to or malfunction of the nervous system).[16]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nNociceptive pain can be divided into \"superficial\" and \"deep\", and deep pain into \"deep\u00a0somatic<\/a>\" and \"visceral<\/a>\".\u00a0Superficial<\/i>\u00a0pain is initiated by\u00a0activation<\/a>\u00a0of nociceptors in the skin or superficial tissues.\u00a0Deep somatic<\/i>\u00a0pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels,\u00a0fasciae<\/a>\u00a0and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain.\u00a0Visceral<\/i>\u00a0pain originates in the viscera (organs). Visceral pain may be well-localized, but often it is extremely difficult to locate, and several visceral regions produce \"referred\" pain when damaged or inflamed, where the sensation is located in an area distant from the site of pathology or injury.[17]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nNeuropathic pain[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0is divided into \"peripheral\" (originating in the\u00a0peripheral nervous system<\/a>) and \"central<\/a>\" (originating in the brain or spinal cord).[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Peripheral neuropathic pain<\/a>\u00a0is often described as \"burning\", \"tingling\", \"electrical\", \"stabbing\", or \"pins and needles\".[20]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Causes<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\r\n

    Pathophysiology<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nUnder persistent activation, the transmission of pain signals to the\u00a0dorsal horn<\/a>\u00a0may produce a\u00a0pain wind-up<\/a>\u00a0phenomenon. This triggers changes that lower the threshold for pain signals to be transmitted. In addition, it may cause nonnociceptive nerve fibers to respond to, generate and transmit pain signals. The type of nerve fibers that are believed to generate the pain signals are the\u00a0C-fibers<\/a>, since they have a slow conductivity and give rise to a painful sensation that persists over a long time.[21]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In chronic pain, this process is difficult to reverse or stop once established.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In some cases, chronic pain can be caused by genetic factors which interfere with neuronal differentiation, leading to a permanently lowered threshold for pain.[23]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nChronic pain of different causes has been characterized as a disease that affects brain structure and function.\u00a0MRI<\/a>\u00a0studies have shown abnormal anatomical[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and functional connectivity, even during rest[25]<\/a><\/sup>[26]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0involving areas related to the processing of pain. Also, persistent pain has been shown to cause\u00a0grey matter<\/a>\u00a0loss, which is reversible once the pain has resolved.[27]<\/a><\/sup>[28]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThese structural changes can be explained by\u00a0neuroplasticity<\/a>. In the case of chronic pain, the\u00a0somatotopic representation<\/a>\u00a0of the body is inappropriately reorganized following peripheral and central sensitization. This can cause\u00a0allodynia<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0hyperalgesia<\/a>. In individuals with chronic pain,\u00a0EEGs<\/a>\u00a0showed altered brain activity, suggesting pain-induced neuroplastic changes. More specifically, the relative\u00a0beta activity<\/a>\u00a0(compared to the rest of the brain) was increased, the relative\u00a0alpha activity<\/a>\u00a0was decreased, and the\u00a0theta activity<\/a>\u00a0was diminished.[29]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nDysfunctional\u00a0dopamine<\/a>\u00a0management in the brain could potentially act as a shared mechanism between chronic pain,\u00a0insomnia<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0major depressive disorder<\/a>.[30]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Astrocytes<\/a>,\u00a0microglia<\/a>, and\u00a0Satellite glial cells<\/a>\u00a0have also been found to be dysfunctional in chronic pain. Increased activity of microglia, alterations of microglial networks, and increased production of\u00a0chemokines<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0cytokines<\/a>\u00a0by microglia might aggravate chronic pain. Astrocytes have been observed to lose their ability to regulate the excitability of neurons, increasing spontaneous neural activity in pain circuits.[31]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Management<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\r\n
    Main article:\u00a0Pain management<\/a><\/div>\r\nPain management<\/a>\u00a0is a branch of medicine that uses an interdisciplinary approach. The combined knowledge of various medical professions and\u00a0allied health professions<\/a>\u00a0is used to ease\u00a0pain<\/a>\u00a0and improve the\u00a0quality of life<\/a>\u00a0of those living with pain.[32]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The typical pain management team includes\u00a0medical practitioners<\/a>\u00a0(particularly anesthesiologists),\u00a0rehabilitation psychologists<\/a>,\u00a0physiotherapists<\/a>,\u00a0occupational therapists<\/a>,\u00a0physician assistants<\/a>, and\u00a0nurse practitioners<\/a>.[33]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Acute pain<\/a>\u00a0usually resolves with the efforts of one practitioner; however, the management of chronic pain frequently requires the coordinated efforts of a treatment team.[34]<\/a><\/sup>[35]<\/a><\/sup>[36]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Complete, longterm\u00a0remission<\/a>\u00a0of many types of chronic pain is rare.[37]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Nonopioids<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nInitially recommended efforts are\u00a0non opioid<\/a>\u00a0based therapies.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Non-opioid treatment of chronic pain with pharmaceutical medicines might include\u00a0acetaminophen (paracetemol)<\/a>[38]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0or\u00a0NSAIDs<\/a>.[39]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nVarious other nonopioid medicines can be used, depending on whether the pain is a result of tissue damage or is\u00a0neuropathic<\/a>\u00a0(pain caused by a damaged or dysfunctional nervous system). There is limited evidence that\u00a0cancer pain<\/a>\u00a0or chronic pain from tissue damage as a result of a conditions (e.g.\u00a0rheumatoid arthritis<\/a>) is best treated with opioids. For\u00a0neuropathic pain<\/a>\u00a0other drugs may be more effective than oipiods,[6]<\/a><\/sup>[7]<\/a><\/sup>[40]<\/a><\/sup>[41]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0such as\u00a0tricyclic antidepressants<\/a>,[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors<\/a>,[43]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0anticonvulsants<\/a>.[43]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some atypical antipsychotics, such as\u00a0olanzapine<\/a>, may also be effective, but the evidence to support this is in very early stages.[44]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In women with chronic pain, hormonal medications such as oral contraceptive pills (\"the pill\") might be helpful.[45]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Because of weak evidence to support a single best fit, doctors must rely on their own clinical experience when treating chronic pain.[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It is difficult for doctors to predict who will use opioids just for pain management and who will go on to develop an addiction. It is also challenging for doctors to know which patients ask for opioids because they are living with an opioid addiction. Withholding, interrupting or withdrawing opioid treatment in people who benefit from it can cause harm.[8]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nInterventional pain management<\/a>\u00a0may be appropriate, including techniques such as\u00a0trigger point injections<\/a>,\u00a0neurolytic blocks<\/a>, and\u00a0radiotherapy<\/a>. While there is no high quality evidence to support\u00a0ultrasound<\/a>, it has been found to have a small effect on improving function in non-specific chronic low back pain.[46]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nPsychological treatments, including\u00a0cognitive behavioral therapy<\/a>[47]<\/a><\/sup>[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0acceptance and commitment therapy<\/a>[49]<\/a><\/sup>[50]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0can be helpful for improving quality of life and reducing pain interference. Brief mindfulness-based treatment approaches have been used, but they are not yet recommended as a first-line treatment.[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The effectiveness of\u00a0mindfulness-based pain management<\/a>\u00a0(MBPM) has been supported by a range of studies.[52]<\/a><\/sup>[53]<\/a><\/sup>[54]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nAmong older adults psychological interventions can help reduce pain and improve self-efficacy for pain management.[55]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Psychological treatments have also been shown to be effective in children and teens with chronic headache or mixed chronic pain conditions.[56]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nWhile exercise has been offered as a method to lessen chronic pain and there is some evidence of benefit, this evidence is tentative.[57]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For people living with chronic pain, exercise results in few side effects.[57]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Opioids<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nIn those who have not benefited from other measures and have no history of either\u00a0mental illness<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0substance use disorder<\/a>\u00a0treatment with opioids may be tried.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0If significant benefit does not occur it is recommended that they be stopped.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In those on opioids, stopping or decreasing their use may improve outcomes including pain.[58]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nSome people with chronic pain benefit from\u00a0opioid<\/a>\u00a0treatment and others do not; some are harmed by the treatment.[8]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Possible harms include reduced sex hormone production,\u00a0hypogonadism<\/a>, infertility, impaired immune system, falls and fractures in older adults,\u00a0neonatal abstinence syndrome<\/a>, heart problems, sleep-disordered breathing,\u00a0opioid-induced hyperalgesia<\/a>,\u00a0physical dependence<\/a>, addiction, abuse, and overdose.[59]<\/a><\/sup>[60]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Alternative medicine<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nHypnosis<\/a>, including\u00a0self-hypnosis<\/a>, has tentative evidence.[61]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Hypnosis, specifically, can offer pain relief for most people and may be a safe alternative to pharmaceutical medication.[62]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Evidence does not support hypnosis for chronic pain due to a spinal cord injury.[63]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nPreliminary studies have found\u00a0medical marijuana<\/a>\u00a0to be beneficial in treating neuropathic pain, but not other kinds of long term pain.[64]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0As of 2018, the evidence for its efficacy in treating neuropathic pain or pain associated with rheumatic diseases is not strong for any benefit and further research is needed.[65]<\/a><\/sup>[66]<\/a><\/sup>[67]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For chronic non-cancer pain, a recent study concluded that it is unlikely that\u00a0cannabinoids<\/a>\u00a0are highly effective.[68]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, more rigorous research into cannabis or cannabis-based medicines is needed.[67]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nTai Chi<\/a>\u00a0has been shown to improve pain, stiffness, and quality of life in chronic conditions such as osteoarthritis, low back pain, and osteoporosis.[69]<\/a><\/sup>[70]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Acupuncture<\/a>\u00a0has also been found to be an effective and safe treatment in reducing pain and improving quality of life in chronic pain including\u00a0chronic pelvic pain syndrome<\/a>.[71]<\/a><\/sup>[72]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nTranscranial magnetic stimulation<\/a>\u00a0for reduction of chronic pain is not supported by high quality evidence, and the demonstrated effects are small and short-term.[73]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nSpa therapy could potentially improve pain in patients with chronic lower back pain, but more studies are needed to provide stronger evidence of this.[74]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nWhile some studies have investigated the efficacy of St John's Wort or nutmeg for treating neuropathic (nerve) pain, their findings have raised serious concerns about the accuracy of their results.[75]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nKinesio Tape<\/a>\u00a0has not been shown to be effective in managing chronic non-specific low-back pain.[76]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nMyofascial release<\/a>\u00a0has been used in some cases of\u00a0fibromyalgia<\/a>, chronic\u00a0low back pain<\/a>, and\u00a0tennis elbow<\/a>\u00a0but there is not enough evidence to support this as method of treatment.[77]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Epidemiology<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\r\nChronic pain varies in different countries effecting anywhere from 8% to 55.2% of the population. It affects women at a higher rate than men, and chronic pain uses a large amount of healthcare resources around the globe.[78]<\/a><\/sup>[5]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nA large-scale telephone survey of 15 European countries and Israel found that 19% of respondents over 18 years of age had suffered pain for more than 6 months, including the last month, and more than twice in the last week, with pain intensity of 5 or more for the last episode, on a scale of 1 (no pain) to 10 (worst imaginable). 4839 of these respondents with chronic pain were interviewed in-depth. Sixty-six percent scored their pain intensity at moderate (5\u20137), and 34% at severe (8\u201310); 46% had constant pain, 56% intermittent; 49% had suffered pain for 2\u201315 years; and 21% had been diagnosed with depression due to the pain. Sixty-one percent were unable or less able to work outside the home, 19% had lost a job, and 13% had changed jobs due to their pain. Forty percent had inadequate pain management and less than 2% were seeing a pain management specialist.[79]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nIn the\u00a0United States<\/a>, chronic pain has been estimated to occur in approximately 35% of the population, with approximately 50 million Americans experiencing partial or total disability as a consequence.[80]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0According to the\u00a0Institute of Medicine<\/a>, there are about 116 million Americans living with chronic pain, which suggests that approximately half of American adults have some chronic pain condition.[81]<\/a><\/sup>[82]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Mayday Fund estimate of 70 million Americans with chronic pain is slightly more conservative.[83]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In an internet study, the prevalence of chronic pain in the United States was calculated to be 30.7% of the population: 34.3% for women and 26.7% for men.[84]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nIn\u00a0Canada<\/a>\u00a0it is estimated that approximately 1 in 5 Canadians live with chronic pain and half of those people have lived with chronic pain for 10 years or longer.[85]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Chronic pain in Canada also occurs more and is more severe in women and Canada's\u00a0Indigenous communities<\/a>.[85]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Outcomes<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\r\nSleep disturbance, and\u00a0insomnia<\/a>\u00a0due to medication and illness symptoms are often experienced by those with chronic pain.[86]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0These conditions can be difficult to treat due to the high potential of medication interactions, especially when the conditions are treated by different doctors.\r\n\r\nSevere chronic pain is associated with increased risk of death over a ten year period, particularly from heart disease and respiratory disease.[87]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Several mechanisms have been proposed for tthis increase, such as an abnormal\u00a0stress response<\/a>\u00a0in the body's\u00a0endocrine system<\/a>.[88]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Additionally, chronic stress seems to affect risks to heart and lung (cardiovascular<\/a>) health by increasing how quickly plaque can build up on artery walls (arteriosclerosis<\/a>). However, further research is needed to clarify the relationship between severe chronic pain, stress and cardiovascular health.[87]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Psychology<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\r\n

    Personality<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nTwo of the most frequent personality profiles found in people with chronic pain by the\u00a0Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory<\/a>\u00a0(MMPI) are the\u00a0conversion V<\/i>\u00a0and the\u00a0neurotic triad<\/i>. The conversion V personality expresses exaggerated concern over body feelings, develops bodily symptoms in response to stress, and often fails to recognize their own emotional state, including\u00a0depression<\/a>. The neurotic triad personality also expresses exaggerated concern over body feelings and develops bodily symptoms in response to stress, but is demanding and complaining.[89]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nSome investigators have argued that it is this\u00a0neuroticism<\/a>\u00a0that causes acute pain to turn chronic, but clinical evidence points the other way, to chronic pain causing neuroticism. When long term pain is relieved by therapeutic intervention, scores on the neurotic triad and\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0fall, often to normal levels.[90]<\/a><\/sup>[91]<\/a><\/sup>[92]<\/a><\/sup>[93]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Self-esteem, often low in people with chronic pain, also shows improvement once pain has resolved.[93]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nIt has been suggested that\u00a0catastrophizing<\/a>\u00a0might play a role in the experience of pain.\u00a0Pain catastrophizing<\/i>\u00a0is the tendency to describe a pain experience in more exaggerated terms than the average person, to think a great deal more about the pain when it occurs, or to feel more helpless about the experience.[94]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0People who score highly on measures of catastrophization are likely to rate a pain experience as more intense than those who score low on such measures. It is often reasoned that the tendency to catastrophize\u00a0causes<\/i>\u00a0the person to experience the pain as more intense. One suggestion is that catastrophizing influences pain perception through altering attention and anticipation, and heightening emotional responses to pain.[95]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, at least some aspects of catastrophization may be the\u00a0product<\/i>\u00a0of an intense pain experience, rather than its cause. That is, the more intense the pain feels to the person, the more likely they are to have thoughts about it that fit the definition of catastrophization.[96]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Co-Morbidity with trauma<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nIndividuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have a high comorbidity with chronic pain.[97]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Patients who suffer from both PTSD and chronic pain, report significantly higher severity of pain than those who do not have a comorbidity with PTSD.[98]<\/a><\/sup>[99]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Perceptions of injustice<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nSimilar to the damaging effects seen with catastrophizing, perceived injustice is thought to contribute to the severity and duration of chronic pain.[100]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Pain-related injustice perception has been conceptualized as a cognitive appraisal reflecting the severity and irreparability of pain- or injury-related loss (e.g., \u2018I just want my life back\u2019), and externalizing blame and unfairness (\u2018I am suffering because of someone else\u2019s negligence\u2019.[101]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It has been suggested that understanding problems with top down processing\/cognitive appraisals can be used to better understand and treat this problem.[102]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Social support<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nSocial support<\/a>\u00a0has important consequences for individuals with chronic pain. In particular, pain intensity, pain control, and resiliency to pain have been implicated as outcomes influenced by different levels and types of social support. Much of this research has focused on emotional, instrumental, tangible and informational social support. People with persistent pain conditions tend to rely on their social support as a coping mechanism and therefore have better outcomes when they are a part of larger more supportive social networks. Across a majority of studies investigated, there was a direct significant association between social activities or social support and pain. Higher levels of pain were associated with a decrease in social activities, lower levels of social support, and reduced social functioning.[103]<\/a><\/sup>[104]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

    Effect on cognition<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\r\nChronic pain's impact on cognition is an under-researched area, but several tentative conclusions have been published. Most people with chronic pain complain of\u00a0cognitive impairment<\/a>, such as forgetfulness, difficulty with attention, and difficulty completing tasks. Objective testing has found that people in chronic pain tend to experience impairment in attention, memory, mental flexibility, verbal ability, speed of response in a cognitive task, and speed in executing structured tasks.[105]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A review of studies in 2018 reports a relationship between people in chronic pain and abnormal results in test of memory, attention, and processing speed.[106]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

    <\/h1>\n
    \n
    Chronic<\/a>\u00a0pain<\/b>\u00a0is classified as\u00a0<\/span>pain<\/a>\u00a0that lasts longer than three to six months<\/span>[1]<\/a><\/sup>. In medicine, the distinction between\u00a0<\/span>acute<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span>chronic<\/a>\u00a0pain is sometimes determined by the amount of time since onset. Two commonly used markers are pain that continues at 3 months and 6 months since onset,<\/span>[2]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0but some theorists and researchers have placed the transition from acute to chronic pain at 12 months.<\/span>[3]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Others apply the term\u00a0<\/span>acute<\/i>\u00a0to pain that lasts less than 30 days,\u00a0<\/span>chronic<\/i>\u00a0to pain of more than six months duration, and\u00a0<\/span>subacute<\/i>\u00a0to pain that lasts from one to six months.<\/span>[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A popular alternative definition of\u00a0<\/span>chronic pain<\/i>, involving no fixed duration, is “pain that extends beyond the expected period of healing”.<\/span>[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/div>\n
    \n
    \n

    Chronic pain may originate in the body, or in the brain or spinal cord. It is often difficult to treat. Epidemiological studies have found that 8% – 11.2% of people in various countries have chronic widespread pain.[5]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Various\u00a0non-opioid<\/a>\u00a0medicines are initially recommended to treat chronic pain, depending on whether the pain is due to tissue damage or is\u00a0neuropathic<\/a>.[6]<\/a><\/sup>[7]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Psychological treatments including\u00a0cognitive behavioral therapy<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0acceptance and commitment therapy<\/a>\u00a0may be effective for improving quality of life in those with chronic pain. Some people with chronic pain may benefit from\u00a0opioid<\/a>\u00a0treatment while others can be harmed by it.[8]<\/a><\/sup>[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In people with non-cancer pain, patients might try opioids only if there is no history of either\u00a0mental illness<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0substance use disorder<\/a>. Opioids for chronic pain should be stopped if they are not effective at treating the patient’s pain.[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

    People with chronic pain tend to have higher rates of depression[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and although the exact connection between the comorbidities is unclear, a 2017 study on neuroplasticity found that “injury sensory pathways of body pains have been shown to share the same brain regions involved in mood management.”[12]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Chronic pain can contribute to decreased physical activity due to fear of making the pain worse. Pain intensity, pain control, and resilience to pain can be influenced by different levels and types of\u00a0social support<\/a>\u00a0that a person with chronic pain receives, and are also influenced by the person’s\u00a0socioeconomic status<\/a>.\u00a0[13
    \n<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

    Classification<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n
    Main article:\u00a0Pain \u00a7\u00a0Classification<\/a><\/div>\n

    The\u00a0International Association for the Study of Pain<\/a>\u00a0defines chronic pain as pain with no biological value, that persists past normal tissue healing. The DSM-5 recognizes one chronic pain disorder, somatic symptom disorders. The criteria include pain lasting longer than six months.[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

    The International Classification of Disease, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11<\/a>) suggests seven categories for chronic pain.[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Chronic primary pain: defined by 3 months of persistent pain in one or more regions of the body that is unexplainable by another pain condition.<\/li>\n
    2. Chronic cancer pain: defined as cancer or treatment related\u00a0visceral<\/a>\u00a0(within the internal organs),\u00a0musculoskeletal<\/a>, or bony pain.<\/li>\n
    3. Chronic post-traumatic pain: pain lasting 3 months after an injury or surgery, excluding infectious or pre-existing conditions.<\/li>\n
    4. Chronic neuropathic pain: pain caused by damage to the\u00a0somatosensory nervous system<\/a>.<\/li>\n
    5. Chronic headache and\u00a0orofacial pain<\/a>: pain that originates in the head or face, and occurs for 50% or more days over a 3 months period.<\/li>\n
    6. Chronic visceral pain: pain originating in an internal organ.<\/li>\n
    7. Chronic musculoskeletal pain: pain originating in the bones, muscles, joints or connective tissue.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Chronic pain may be divided into “nociceptive<\/a>” (caused by inflamed or damaged tissue activating specialized pain sensors called\u00a0nociceptors<\/a>), and “neuropathic<\/a>” (caused by damage to or malfunction of the nervous system).[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Nociceptive pain can be divided into “superficial” and “deep”, and deep pain into “deep\u00a0somatic<\/a>” and “visceral<\/a>“.\u00a0Superficial<\/i>\u00a0pain is initiated by\u00a0activation<\/a>\u00a0of nociceptors in the skin or superficial tissues.\u00a0Deep somatic<\/i>\u00a0pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels,\u00a0fasciae<\/a>\u00a0and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain.\u00a0Visceral<\/i>\u00a0pain originates in the viscera (organs). Visceral pain may be well-localized, but often it is extremely difficult to locate, and several visceral regions produce “referred” pain when damaged or inflamed, where the sensation is located in an area distant from the site of pathology or injury.[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Neuropathic pain[18]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0is divided into “peripheral” (originating in the\u00a0peripheral nervous system<\/a>) and “central<\/a>” (originating in the brain or spinal cord).[19]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Peripheral neuropathic pain<\/a>\u00a0is often described as “burning”, “tingling”, “electrical”, “stabbing”, or “pins and needles”.[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Causes<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n

      Pathophysiology<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Under persistent activation, the transmission of pain signals to the\u00a0dorsal horn<\/a>\u00a0may produce a\u00a0pain wind-up<\/a>\u00a0phenomenon. This triggers changes that lower the threshold for pain signals to be transmitted. In addition, it may cause nonnociceptive nerve fibers to respond to, generate and transmit pain signals. The type of nerve fibers that are believed to generate the pain signals are the\u00a0C-fibers<\/a>, since they have a slow conductivity and give rise to a painful sensation that persists over a long time.[21]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In chronic pain, this process is difficult to reverse or stop once established.[22]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In some cases, chronic pain can be caused by genetic factors which interfere with neuronal differentiation, leading to a permanently lowered threshold for pain.[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Chronic pain of different causes has been characterized as a disease that affects brain structure and function.\u00a0MRI<\/a>\u00a0studies have shown abnormal anatomical[24]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and functional connectivity, even during rest[25]<\/a><\/sup>[26]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0involving areas related to the processing of pain. Also, persistent pain has been shown to cause\u00a0grey matter<\/a>\u00a0loss, which is reversible once the pain has resolved.[27]<\/a><\/sup>[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      These structural changes can be explained by\u00a0neuroplasticity<\/a>. In the case of chronic pain, the\u00a0somatotopic representation<\/a>\u00a0of the body is inappropriately reorganized following peripheral and central sensitization. This can cause\u00a0allodynia<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0hyperalgesia<\/a>. In individuals with chronic pain,\u00a0EEGs<\/a>\u00a0showed altered brain activity, suggesting pain-induced neuroplastic changes. More specifically, the relative\u00a0beta activity<\/a>\u00a0(compared to the rest of the brain) was increased, the relative\u00a0alpha activity<\/a>\u00a0was decreased, and the\u00a0theta activity<\/a>\u00a0was diminished.[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Dysfunctional\u00a0dopamine<\/a>\u00a0management in the brain could potentially act as a shared mechanism between chronic pain,\u00a0insomnia<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0major depressive disorder<\/a>.[30]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Astrocytes<\/a>,\u00a0microglia<\/a>, and\u00a0Satellite glial cells<\/a>\u00a0have also been found to be dysfunctional in chronic pain. Increased activity of microglia, alterations of microglial networks, and increased production of\u00a0chemokines<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0cytokines<\/a>\u00a0by microglia might aggravate chronic pain. Astrocytes have been observed to lose their ability to regulate the excitability of neurons, increasing spontaneous neural activity in pain circuits.[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Management<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n
      Main article:\u00a0Pain management<\/a><\/div>\n

      Pain management<\/a>\u00a0is a branch of medicine that uses an interdisciplinary approach. The combined knowledge of various medical professions and\u00a0allied health professions<\/a>\u00a0is used to ease\u00a0pain<\/a>\u00a0and improve the\u00a0quality of life<\/a>\u00a0of those living with pain.[32]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The typical pain management team includes\u00a0medical practitioners<\/a>\u00a0(particularly anesthesiologists),\u00a0rehabilitation psychologists<\/a>,\u00a0physiotherapists<\/a>,\u00a0occupational therapists<\/a>,\u00a0physician assistants<\/a>, and\u00a0nurse practitioners<\/a>.[33]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Acute pain<\/a>\u00a0usually resolves with the efforts of one practitioner; however, the management of chronic pain frequently requires the coordinated efforts of a treatment team.[34]<\/a><\/sup>[35]<\/a><\/sup>[36]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Complete, longterm\u00a0remission<\/a>\u00a0of many types of chronic pain is rare.[37]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Nonopioids<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Initially recommended efforts are\u00a0non opioid<\/a>\u00a0based therapies.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Non-opioid treatment of chronic pain with pharmaceutical medicines might include\u00a0acetaminophen (paracetemol)<\/a>[38]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0or\u00a0NSAIDs<\/a>.[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Various other nonopioid medicines can be used, depending on whether the pain is a result of tissue damage or is\u00a0neuropathic<\/a>\u00a0(pain caused by a damaged or dysfunctional nervous system). There is limited evidence that\u00a0cancer pain<\/a>\u00a0or chronic pain from tissue damage as a result of a conditions (e.g.\u00a0rheumatoid arthritis<\/a>) is best treated with opioids. For\u00a0neuropathic pain<\/a>\u00a0other drugs may be more effective than oipiods,[6]<\/a><\/sup>[7]<\/a><\/sup>[40]<\/a><\/sup>[41]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0such as\u00a0tricyclic antidepressants<\/a>,[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors<\/a>,[43]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0anticonvulsants<\/a>.[43]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Some atypical antipsychotics, such as\u00a0olanzapine<\/a>, may also be effective, but the evidence to support this is in very early stages.[44]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In women with chronic pain, hormonal medications such as oral contraceptive pills (“the pill”) might be helpful.[45]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Because of weak evidence to support a single best fit, doctors must rely on their own clinical experience when treating chronic pain.[42]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It is difficult for doctors to predict who will use opioids just for pain management and who will go on to develop an addiction. It is also challenging for doctors to know which patients ask for opioids because they are living with an opioid addiction. Withholding, interrupting or withdrawing opioid treatment in people who benefit from it can cause harm.[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Interventional pain management<\/a>\u00a0may be appropriate, including techniques such as\u00a0trigger point injections<\/a>,\u00a0neurolytic blocks<\/a>, and\u00a0radiotherapy<\/a>. While there is no high quality evidence to support\u00a0ultrasound<\/a>, it has been found to have a small effect on improving function in non-specific chronic low back pain.[46]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Psychological treatments, including\u00a0cognitive behavioral therapy<\/a>[47]<\/a><\/sup>[48]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0and\u00a0acceptance and commitment therapy<\/a>[49]<\/a><\/sup>[50]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0can be helpful for improving quality of life and reducing pain interference. Brief mindfulness-based treatment approaches have been used, but they are not yet recommended as a first-line treatment.[51]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The effectiveness of\u00a0mindfulness-based pain management<\/a>\u00a0(MBPM) has been supported by a range of studies.[52]<\/a><\/sup>[53]<\/a><\/sup>[54]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Among older adults psychological interventions can help reduce pain and improve self-efficacy for pain management.[55]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Psychological treatments have also been shown to be effective in children and teens with chronic headache or mixed chronic pain conditions.[56]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      While exercise has been offered as a method to lessen chronic pain and there is some evidence of benefit, this evidence is tentative.[57]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For people living with chronic pain, exercise results in few side effects.[57]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Opioids<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      In those who have not benefited from other measures and have no history of either\u00a0mental illness<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0substance use disorder<\/a>\u00a0treatment with opioids may be tried.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0If significant benefit does not occur it is recommended that they be stopped.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In those on opioids, stopping or decreasing their use may improve outcomes including pain.[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Some people with chronic pain benefit from\u00a0opioid<\/a>\u00a0treatment and others do not; some are harmed by the treatment.[8]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Possible harms include reduced sex hormone production,\u00a0hypogonadism<\/a>, infertility, impaired immune system, falls and fractures in older adults,\u00a0neonatal abstinence syndrome<\/a>, heart problems, sleep-disordered breathing,\u00a0opioid-induced hyperalgesia<\/a>,\u00a0physical dependence<\/a>, addiction, abuse, and overdose.[59]<\/a><\/sup>[60]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Alternative medicine<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Hypnosis<\/a>, including\u00a0self-hypnosis<\/a>, has tentative evidence.[61]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Hypnosis, specifically, can offer pain relief for most people and may be a safe alternative to pharmaceutical medication.[62]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Evidence does not support hypnosis for chronic pain due to a spinal cord injury.[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Preliminary studies have found\u00a0medical marijuana<\/a>\u00a0to be beneficial in treating neuropathic pain, but not other kinds of long term pain.[64]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0As of 2018, the evidence for its efficacy in treating neuropathic pain or pain associated with rheumatic diseases is not strong for any benefit and further research is needed.[65]<\/a><\/sup>[66]<\/a><\/sup>[67]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0For chronic non-cancer pain, a recent study concluded that it is unlikely that\u00a0cannabinoids<\/a>\u00a0are highly effective.[68]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, more rigorous research into cannabis or cannabis-based medicines is needed.[67]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Tai Chi<\/a>\u00a0has been shown to improve pain, stiffness, and quality of life in chronic conditions such as osteoarthritis, low back pain, and osteoporosis.[69]<\/a><\/sup>[70]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Acupuncture<\/a>\u00a0has also been found to be an effective and safe treatment in reducing pain and improving quality of life in chronic pain including\u00a0chronic pelvic pain syndrome<\/a>.[71]<\/a><\/sup>[72]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Transcranial magnetic stimulation<\/a>\u00a0for reduction of chronic pain is not supported by high quality evidence, and the demonstrated effects are small and short-term.[73]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Spa therapy could potentially improve pain in patients with chronic lower back pain, but more studies are needed to provide stronger evidence of this.[74]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      While some studies have investigated the efficacy of St John’s Wort or nutmeg for treating neuropathic (nerve) pain, their findings have raised serious concerns about the accuracy of their results.[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Kinesio Tape<\/a>\u00a0has not been shown to be effective in managing chronic non-specific low-back pain.[76]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Myofascial release<\/a>\u00a0has been used in some cases of\u00a0fibromyalgia<\/a>, chronic\u00a0low back pain<\/a>, and\u00a0tennis elbow<\/a>\u00a0but there is not enough evidence to support this as method of treatment.[77]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Epidemiology<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n

      Chronic pain varies in different countries effecting anywhere from 8% to 55.2% of the population. It affects women at a higher rate than men, and chronic pain uses a large amount of healthcare resources around the globe.[78]<\/a><\/sup>[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      A large-scale telephone survey of 15 European countries and Israel found that 19% of respondents over 18 years of age had suffered pain for more than 6 months, including the last month, and more than twice in the last week, with pain intensity of 5 or more for the last episode, on a scale of 1 (no pain) to 10 (worst imaginable). 4839 of these respondents with chronic pain were interviewed in-depth. Sixty-six percent scored their pain intensity at moderate (5\u20137), and 34% at severe (8\u201310); 46% had constant pain, 56% intermittent; 49% had suffered pain for 2\u201315 years; and 21% had been diagnosed with depression due to the pain. Sixty-one percent were unable or less able to work outside the home, 19% had lost a job, and 13% had changed jobs due to their pain. Forty percent had inadequate pain management and less than 2% were seeing a pain management specialist.[79]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      In the\u00a0United States<\/a>, chronic pain has been estimated to occur in approximately 35% of the population, with approximately 50 million Americans experiencing partial or total disability as a consequence.[80]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0According to the\u00a0Institute of Medicine<\/a>, there are about 116 million Americans living with chronic pain, which suggests that approximately half of American adults have some chronic pain condition.[81]<\/a><\/sup>[82]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The Mayday Fund estimate of 70 million Americans with chronic pain is slightly more conservative.[83]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In an internet study, the prevalence of chronic pain in the United States was calculated to be 30.7% of the population: 34.3% for women and 26.7% for men.[84]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      In\u00a0Canada<\/a>\u00a0it is estimated that approximately 1 in 5 Canadians live with chronic pain and half of those people have lived with chronic pain for 10 years or longer.[85]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Chronic pain in Canada also occurs more and is more severe in women and Canada’s\u00a0Indigenous communities<\/a>.[85]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Outcomes<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n

      Sleep disturbance, and\u00a0insomnia<\/a>\u00a0due to medication and illness symptoms are often experienced by those with chronic pain.[86]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0These conditions can be difficult to treat due to the high potential of medication interactions, especially when the conditions are treated by different doctors.<\/p>\n

      Severe chronic pain is associated with increased risk of death over a ten year period, particularly from heart disease and respiratory disease.[87]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Several mechanisms have been proposed for tthis increase, such as an abnormal\u00a0stress response<\/a>\u00a0in the body’s\u00a0endocrine system<\/a>.[88]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Additionally, chronic stress seems to affect risks to heart and lung (cardiovascular<\/a>) health by increasing how quickly plaque can build up on artery walls (arteriosclerosis<\/a>). However, further research is needed to clarify the relationship between severe chronic pain, stress and cardiovascular health.[87]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Psychology<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n

      Personality<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Two of the most frequent personality profiles found in people with chronic pain by the\u00a0Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory<\/a>\u00a0(MMPI) are the\u00a0conversion V<\/i>\u00a0and the\u00a0neurotic triad<\/i>. The conversion V personality expresses exaggerated concern over body feelings, develops bodily symptoms in response to stress, and often fails to recognize their own emotional state, including\u00a0depression<\/a>. The neurotic triad personality also expresses exaggerated concern over body feelings and develops bodily symptoms in response to stress, but is demanding and complaining.[89]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Some investigators have argued that it is this\u00a0neuroticism<\/a>\u00a0that causes acute pain to turn chronic, but clinical evidence points the other way, to chronic pain causing neuroticism. When long term pain is relieved by therapeutic intervention, scores on the neurotic triad and\u00a0anxiety<\/a>\u00a0fall, often to normal levels.[90]<\/a><\/sup>[91]<\/a><\/sup>[92]<\/a><\/sup>[93]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Self-esteem, often low in people with chronic pain, also shows improvement once pain has resolved.[93]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      It has been suggested that\u00a0catastrophizing<\/a>\u00a0might play a role in the experience of pain.\u00a0Pain catastrophizing<\/i>\u00a0is the tendency to describe a pain experience in more exaggerated terms than the average person, to think a great deal more about the pain when it occurs, or to feel more helpless about the experience.[94]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0People who score highly on measures of catastrophization are likely to rate a pain experience as more intense than those who score low on such measures. It is often reasoned that the tendency to catastrophize\u00a0causes<\/i>\u00a0the person to experience the pain as more intense. One suggestion is that catastrophizing influences pain perception through altering attention and anticipation, and heightening emotional responses to pain.[95]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0However, at least some aspects of catastrophization may be the\u00a0product<\/i>\u00a0of an intense pain experience, rather than its cause. That is, the more intense the pain feels to the person, the more likely they are to have thoughts about it that fit the definition of catastrophization.[96]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Co-Morbidity with trauma<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have a high comorbidity with chronic pain.[97]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Patients who suffer from both PTSD and chronic pain, report significantly higher severity of pain than those who do not have a comorbidity with PTSD.[98]<\/a><\/sup>[99]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Perceptions of injustice<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Similar to the damaging effects seen with catastrophizing, perceived injustice is thought to contribute to the severity and duration of chronic pain.[100]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Pain-related injustice perception has been conceptualized as a cognitive appraisal reflecting the severity and irreparability of pain- or injury-related loss (e.g., \u2018I just want my life back\u2019), and externalizing blame and unfairness (\u2018I am suffering because of someone else\u2019s negligence\u2019.[101]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0It has been suggested that understanding problems with top down processing\/cognitive appraisals can be used to better understand and treat this problem.[102]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Social support<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Social support<\/a>\u00a0has important consequences for individuals with chronic pain. In particular, pain intensity, pain control, and resiliency to pain have been implicated as outcomes influenced by different levels and types of social support. Much of this research has focused on emotional, instrumental, tangible and informational social support. People with persistent pain conditions tend to rely on their social support as a coping mechanism and therefore have better outcomes when they are a part of larger more supportive social networks. Across a majority of studies investigated, there was a direct significant association between social activities or social support and pain. Higher levels of pain were associated with a decrease in social activities, lower levels of social support, and reduced social functioning.[103]<\/a><\/sup>[104]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

      Effect on cognition<\/span>[<\/span>edit<\/a>]<\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n

      Chronic pain’s impact on cognition is an under-researched area, but several tentative conclusions have been published. Most people with chronic pain complain of\u00a0cognitive impairment<\/a>, such as forgetfulness, difficulty with attention, and difficulty completing tasks. Objective testing has found that people in chronic pain tend to experience impairment in attention, memory, mental flexibility, verbal ability, speed of response in a cognitive task, and speed in executing structured tasks.[105]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A review of studies in 2018 reports a relationship between people in chronic pain and abnormal results in test of memory, attention, and processing speed.[106]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t

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