{"id":1346,"date":"2018-12-19T04:28:12","date_gmt":"2018-12-19T04:28:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&p=1346"},"modified":"2021-04-14T05:27:20","modified_gmt":"2021-04-14T05:27:20","slug":"cognitive-development-in-early-adulthood-2","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment4\/chapter\/cognitive-development-in-early-adulthood-2\/","title":{"raw":"Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood","rendered":"Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood"},"content":{"raw":"\"A\r\n\r\nWe have learned about cognitive development from infancy through adolescence, ending with Piaget's stage of formal operations. Does that mean that cognitive development stops with adolescence? Couldn't there be different ways of thinking in adulthood that come after (or \"post\") formal operations?\r\n\r\nIn this section, we will learn about these types of postformal operational thought and consider research done by William Perry related to types of thought and advanced thinking. We will also look at education in early adulthood, the relationship between education and work, and some tools used by young adults to choose their careers.\r\n

Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood<\/h2>\r\n

Beyond Formal Operational Thought:\u00a0Postformal Thought<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3922\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"522\"]\"College Figure 1<\/strong>. As young adults gain more experience, they think increasingly more in the abstract and are able to understand different perspectives and complexities.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the adolescence module,\u00a0we discussed Piaget's formal operational thought.\u00a0The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never directly experienced.\u00a0Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult thought, however.\u00a0If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late 30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is possible, but also what is likely. Why the change?\u00a0The young adult has gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always become realities.\u00a0This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark arguments between the generations.\r\n\r\nHere is an example.\u00a0A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she was having with her 14-year-old son.\u00a0The son had saved a considerable amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage until he was old enough to drive.\u00a0He could sit in it, pretend he was driving, clean it up, and show it to his friends.\u00a0It sounded like a perfect opportunity.\u00a0The mother, however, had practical objections.\u00a0The car would just sit for several years while\u00a0deteriorating.\u00a0The son would probably\u00a0change his mind about the type of car he wanted by the time\u00a0he was old enough to drive and they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might decide to sneak it out for a quick ride\u00a0before he had a permit or license. <\/del>\r\n\r\n<\/del>Piaget's theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations, but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or \"post\") formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a separate \"stage\" of development). Postformal thought<\/strong> is practical, realistic and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s, chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior experience and are less influenced by what others think.\u00a0Of course, this is particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States. Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development.\r\n
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Perry's Scheme<\/h3>\r\nOne of the first theories of cognitive development in early adulthood originated with William Perry (1970), who studied undergraduate students at Harvard University.\u00a0 Perry noted that over the course of students' college years, cognition tended to shift from dualism<\/strong> (absolute, black and white, right and wrong type of thinking) to multiplicity<\/strong> (recognizing that some problems are solvable and some answers are not yet known) to relativism<\/strong> (understanding the importance of the specific context of knowledge\u2014it's all relative to other factors). Similar to Piaget's formal operational thinking in adolescence, this change in thinking in early adulthood is affected by educational experiences.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/XkEJIXvwROs\r\n\r\nVideo 1.<\/strong> Perry's Scheme of Intellectual Development.\u00a0<\/em>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Table 1. Stages of Perry's Scheme<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/th>\r\nSummary of Position in Perry's Scheme<\/th>\r\nBasic Example<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Dualism<\/td>\r\nThe authorities know<\/td>\r\n\"the tutor knows what is right and wrong\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nThe true authorities are right, the others are frauds<\/td>\r\n\"my tutor doesn't know what is right and wrong but others do\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Multiplicity<\/td>\r\nThere are some uncertainties and the authorities are working on them to find the truth<\/td>\r\n\"my tutors don't know, but somebody out there is trying to find out\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\n(a) Everyone has the right to their own opinion\r\n(b) The authorities don't want the right answers. They want us to think in a certain way<\/td>\r\n\"different tutors think different things\"\r\n\"there is an answer that the tutors want and we have to find it\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Relativism<\/td>\r\nEverything is relative but not equally valid<\/td>\r\n\"there are no right and wrong answers, it depends on the situation, but some answers might be better than others\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nYou have to make your own decisions<\/td>\r\n\"what is important is not what the tutor thinks but what I think\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nFirst commitment<\/td>\r\n\"for this particular topic I think that....\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nSeveral Commitments<\/td>\r\n\"for these topics I think that....\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nBelieve own values, respect others, be ready to learn<\/td>\r\n\"I know what I believe in and what I think is valid, others may think differently and I'm prepared to reconsider my views\"<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

Dialectical Thought<\/h3>\r\nIn addition to moving toward more practical considerations, thinking in early adulthood may also become more flexible and balanced.\u00a0Abstract ideas that the adolescent believes in firmly may become standards by which the individual evaluates reality.\u00a0As Perry's research pointed out, adolescents tend to think in\u00a0dichotomies or absolute terms; ideas are true or false; good or bad; right or wrong and there is no middle ground.\u00a0However, with education and experience, the young adult comes to recognize that there is some right and some wrong in each position. Such thinking is more realistic because very few positions, ideas, situations, or people are completely right or wrong.\r\n\r\nSome adults may move even beyond the relativistic or contextual thinking described by Perry; they may be able\u00a0to bring together important aspects of two opposing viewpoints or positions, synthesize them, and come up with new ideas. This is referred to as\u00a0dialectical\u00a0thought<\/strong>\u00a0and is considered one of the most advanced aspects of postformal thinking (Basseches, 1984). There isn't just one theory of postformal thought; there are variations, with emphasis on adults' ability to tolerate ambiguity or to accept contradictions or find new problems, rather than solve problems, etc. (as well as relativism and dialecticism that we just learned about). What they all have in common is the proposition that the way we think may change during adulthood with education and experience.\r\n
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Schaie and Willis\u2019 Stage Theory of Cognition<\/h3>\r\nAnother perspective on post-formal cognitive development focuses less on the development of cognitive skills and instead discerns the changes in the use of intellect. Shaie and Willis' stage theory of cognition proposed several stages of adult cognitive development.\r\n

\"\"Figure 2.<\/strong> Shaie & Willis' Stage Theory of Cognition.<\/p>\r\nDuring childhood and adolescence, cognition is about the acquisition<\/em> of new knowledge and skills. These young people may not yet know how they will use these acquired skills.\u00a0In early adulthood, people switch their focus from the acquisition to the application\u00a0of knowledge, as they use what they know to pursue\r\ncareers and develop their families. This is called the\u00a0achieving stage.<\/em> It represents most prominently the\u00a0application of intelligence in situations that have\r\nprofound consequences for achieving long-term goals.\u00a0The kind of intelligence exhibited in such situations is\u00a0similar to that employed in educational tasks, but it\r\nrequires careful attention to the possible consequences\u00a0of the problem-solving process.\r\n\r\nAdults who have mastered the cognitive skills\u00a0required for monitoring their own behavior and, as a\u00a0consequence, have attained a certain degree of personal\r\nindependence will next move into a stage that requires\u00a0the application of cognitive skills in situations involving\u00a0social responsibility. Typically, the responsible stage<\/em>\r\noccurs when a family is established and the needs of a spouse and offspring must be met. Similar extensions of adult cognitive skills are required as responsibilities for\u00a0others are acquired on the job and in the community.\r\n\r\nSome individuals\u02bc responsibilities become\u00a0exceedingly complex. Such individuals\uff0dpresidents of\u00a0business firms, deans of academic institutions, officials\r\nof churches, and a number of other positions\uff0dneed to\u00a0understand the structure and the dynamic forces of\u00a0organizations. They must monitor organizational\r\nactivities not only on a temporal dimension (past,\u00a0present, and future), but also up and down the hierarchy\u00a0that defines the organization. They need to know not\r\nonly the future plans of the organization but also\u00a0whether policy decisions are being adequately\u00a0translated into action at lower levels of responsibility.\u00a0Attainment of the executive stage,<\/em> as a variation on the responsibility stage, depends on exposure to\u00a0opportunities that allow the development and practice\u00a0of the relevant skills (Avolio, 1991; Smith, Staudinger, &\u00a0Baltes, 1994).\r\n\r\nIn the later years of life, beyond the age of 60 or 65, the need\u00a0to acquire knowledge declines even more, and\u00a0executive monitoring is less important because\r\nfrequently the individual has retired from the position that required such an application of intelligence. This\u00a0stage, reintegration<\/em>, corresponds in its position in the life\r\ncourse to Erikson\u02bcs stage of ego integrity. The information\u00a0that elderly people acquire and the knowledge they\u00a0apply becomes a function of their interests, attitudes,\r\nand values. It requires, in fact, the reintegration of all of these. The elderly are less likely to \u201cwaste time\u201d on tasks\u00a0that are meaningless to them. They are unlikely to\r\nexpend much effort to solve a problem unless that\u00a0problem is one that they face frequently in their lives.\u00a0This stage frequently includes a selective reduction of\r\ninterpersonal networks in the interest of reintegrating\u00a0one\u02bcs concern in a more self-directed and supportive\u00a0manner (cf. Carstensen, 1993; Carstensen, Gross, & Fung,\u00a01997). In addition, efforts must be directed towards planning\u00a0how one\u02bcs resources will last for the remaining 15 to 30\u00a0years of post-retirement life that are now characteristic\u00a0for most individuals in industrialized societies. These\u00a0efforts include active planning for that time when\u00a0dependence upon others may be required to maintain a\u00a0high quality of life in the face of increasing frailty. Such\u00a0efforts may involve changes in one\u02bcs housing\u00a0arrangements, or even one\u02bcs place of residence, as well\u00a0as making certain of the eventual availability of both\u00a0familial and extra-familial support systems. The activities\u00a0involved in this context include making or changing\u00a0one\u02bcs will, drawing up advanced medical directives and\u00a0durable powers of attorney, as well as creating trusts or\u00a0other financial arrangements that will protect resources\u00a0for use during the final years of life or for the needs of other family members.\r\n\r\nAlthough some of these activities involve the same\u00a0cognitive characteristics of the responsible stage, these\u00a0objectives involved are far more centered upon current\r\nand future needs of the individual rather than the needs\u00a0of their family or of an organizational entity. Efforts must\u00a0now be initiated to reorganize<\/em> one\u02bcs time and resources\u00a0to substitute a meaningful environment, often found in leisure activities, volunteerism, and involvement with a\u00a0larger kinship network. Eventually, however, activities are\u00a0also engaged in maximizing the quality of life during the\u00a0final years, often with the additional objective of not\u00a0becoming a burden for the next generation. The unique\u00a0objective of these demands upon the individual\u00a0represent an almost universal process occurring at least\u00a0in the industrialized societies, and designation of a\u00a0separate reorganizational stage is therefore warranted.\u00a0The skills required for the reorganizational stage\u00a0require the maintenance of reasonably high levels of\u00a0cognitive competence. In addition, maintenance of flexible cognitive styles are needed to be able to\u00a0restructure the context and content of life after\r\nretirement, to relinquish control of resources to others\u00a0and to accept the partial surrender of one\u02bcs\u00a0independence (Schaie, 1984; 2005).\r\n\r\nMany older persons reach advanced old age in relative comfort and often with a clear mind albeit a frail\u00a0body. Once the reintegrative efforts described above\r\nhave been successfully completed, yet one other stage is\u00a0frequently observed. This last stage is concerned with\u00a0cognitive activities by many of the very old that occur in\u00a0anticipation of the end of their life. This is a legacy stage <\/em>tha<\/em>t is part of the cognitive development of many, if not all, older persons. This stage often begins\r\nby the effort to conduct a life\u00a0review (Butler, Lewis, & Sunderland, 1998). For the highly\u00a0literate and those successful in public or professional\u00a0life this will often include writing or revising an\u00a0autobiography (Birren, Kenyon, Ruth, Schroots, &\u00a0Swensson, 1995; Birren & Schroots, 2006).\u00a0There are also many other more mundane legacies to\u00a0be left. Women, in particular, often wish to put their\u00a0remaining effects in order and often distribute many of\u00a0their prized possessions to friends and relatives, or create\u00a0elaborate instructions for distributing them. It is not\u00a0uncommon for many very old people to make a\u00a0renewed effort at providing an oral history or to explain\u00a0family pictures and heirloom to the next generation. Last,\u00a0but not least, directions may be given for funeral\u00a0arrangements, occasionally including the donation of one\u02bcs\u00a0body for scientific research, and there may be a final\u00a0revision of one\u02bcs will.\r\n

Education and Work<\/h2>\r\n

Education in Early Adulthood<\/h3>\r\n <\/a>According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), 90 percent of the American population 25 and older have completed high school or higher level of education\u2014compare this to just 24 percent in 1940! Each generation tends to earn (and perhaps need) increased levels of formal education. As we can see in the graph, approximately one-third of the American adult population has a bachelor's degree or higher, as compared with less than 5 percent in 1940. Educational attainment rates vary by gender and race. All races combined, women are slightly more likely to have graduated from college than men; that gap widens with graduate and professional degrees. However, wide racial disparities still exist. For example, 23 percent of African-Americans have a college degree and only 16.4 percent of Hispanic Americans have a college degree, compared to 37 percent of non-Hispanic white Americans. The college graduation rates of African-Americans and Hispanic Americans have been growing in recent years, however (the rate has doubled since 1991 for African-Americans and it has increased 60 percent in the last two decades for Hispanic-Americans).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2527\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"632\"]\"Line<\/a> Figure 2.<\/strong>\u00a0Since 1940, there has been a significant rise in educational attainment for adults over age 25.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n
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What about those young or emerging adults graduating high school today\u2014is the majority of that group going to college? According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017), 66.7 percent of youth ages 16-24 who graduated high school between January and October 2017 were enrolled in colleges or universities in October 2017. There were gender differences (71.7 percent of females vs. 61.1 percent of males) and racial differences (83 percent of Asians, 67.1 percent of non-Hispanic whites, 61 percent Hispanics, and 59.4 percent Blacks). Not all of these\u00a0students will persist and earn college degrees, however.<\/div>\r\n
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Education and the Workplace<\/h3>\r\nWith the rising costs of higher education, various news headlines have asked if a college education is worth the cost. One way to address this question is in terms of the earning potential associated with various levels of educational achievement. In 2016, the average earnings for Americans 25 and older with only a high school education was $35,615, compared with $65,482 for those with a bachelor's degree, compared with $92,525 for those with more advanced degrees. Average earnings vary by gender, race, and geographical location in the United States.\r\n\r\nOf\u00a0concern in recent years is the relationship between higher education and the workplace. In 2005, American educator and then Harvard University President, Derek Bok, called for a closer alignment between the goals of educators and the demands of the economy.\u00a0Companies outsource much of their work, not only to save costs but to find workers with the skills they need.\u00a0What is required to do well in today's economy?\u00a0Colleges and universities, he argued, need to promote global awareness, critical thinking skills, the ability to communicate, moral reasoning, and responsibility in their students. Regional accrediting agencies and state organizations provide similar guidelines for educators.\u00a0Workers need skills in listening, reading, writing, speaking, global awareness, critical thinking, civility, and computer literacy\u2014all skills that enhance success in the workplace.\r\n<\/del>\r\n\r\nMore than a decade later, the question remains: does formal education prepare young adults for the workplace? It depends on whom you ask. In an article referring to information from the National Association of Colleges and Employers' 2018 Job Outlook Survey, Bauer-Wolf (2018) explains that employers perceive gaps in students' competencies but many graduating college seniors are overly confident. The biggest difference was in perceived professionalism and work ethic (only 43 percent of employers thought that students are competent in this area compared to 90 percent of the students). Similar differences were also found in terms of oral communication, written communication, and critical thinking skills. Only in terms of digital technology skills were more employers confident about students' competencies than were the students (66 percent compared to 60 percent).\r\n\r\nIt appears that students need to learn what some call \"soft skills,\" as well as the particular knowledge and skills within their college major. As education researcher Loni Bordoloi Pazich (2018) noted, most American college students today are enrolling in business or other pre-professional programs and to be effective and successful workers and leaders, they would benefit from the communication, teamwork, and critical thinking skills, as well as the content knowledge, gained from liberal arts education. In fact, two-thirds of children starting primary school now will be employed in jobs in the future that currently do not exist. Therefore, students cannot learn every single skill or fact that they may need to know, but they can learn how to learn, think, research, and communicate well so that they are prepared to continually learn new things and adapt effectively in their careers and lives since the economy, technology, and global markets will continue to evolve.\r\n

Career Choices in Early Adulthood<\/h3>\r\nHopefully, we are each becoming lifelong learners, particularly since we are living longer and will\u00a0most likely change jobs multiple times during our lives. However, for many, our job changes will be within the same general occupational field, so our initial career choice is still significant. We've seen with Erikson that identity largely involves occupation and, as we will learn in the next section, Levinson found that young adults typically form a dream about work (though females may have to choose to focus relatively more on work or family initially with \"split\" dreams). The American School Counselor Association recommends that school counselors aid students in their career development beginning as early as kindergarten and continue this development throughout their education.\r\n\r\nOne of the most well-known theories about career choice is from John Holland (1985), who proposed that there are six personality types (realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional), as well as varying types of work environments. The better matched one's personality is to the workplace characteristics, the more satisfied and successful one is predicted to be with that career or vocational choice. Research support has been mixed and we should note that there is more to satisfaction and success in a career than one's personality traits or likes and dislikes. For instance, education, training, and abilities need to match the expectations and demands of the job, plus the state of the economy, availability of positions, and salary rates may play practical roles in choices about work.\r\n<\/span>\r\n
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Link to Learning: What's Your Right Career?<\/h3>\r\nTo complete a free online career questionnaire and identify potential careers based on your preferences, go to:<\/span>\r\n

Career One Stop Questionnaire<\/a><\/span><\/p>\r\nDid you find out anything intere<\/span><\/span>sting?\u00a0Think of this activity as a starting point to your career exploration.\u00a0 Other great ways for young adults to research careers include informational interviewing, job shadowing, volunteering, practicums, and internships.\u00a0Once you have a few careers in mind that you want to find out more about, go to the\u00a0Occupational Outlook Handbook<\/a> from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics to learn about job tasks, required education, average pay, and projected outlook for the future.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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\"A<\/p>\n

We have learned about cognitive development from infancy through adolescence, ending with Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Does that mean that cognitive development stops with adolescence? Couldn’t there be different ways of thinking in adulthood that come after (or “post”) formal operations?<\/p>\n

In this section, we will learn about these types of postformal operational thought and consider research done by William Perry related to types of thought and advanced thinking. We will also look at education in early adulthood, the relationship between education and work, and some tools used by young adults to choose their careers.<\/p>\n

Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood<\/h2>\n

Beyond Formal Operational Thought:\u00a0Postformal Thought<\/h3>\n
\"College<\/p>\n

Figure 1<\/strong>. As young adults gain more experience, they think increasingly more in the abstract and are able to understand different perspectives and complexities.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

In the adolescence module,\u00a0we discussed Piaget’s formal operational thought.\u00a0The hallmark of this type of thinking is the ability to think abstractly or to consider possibilities and ideas about circumstances never directly experienced.\u00a0Thinking abstractly is only one characteristic of adult thought, however.\u00a0If you compare a 14-year-old with someone in their late 30s, you would probably find that the later considers not only what is possible, but also what is likely. Why the change?\u00a0The young adult has gained experience and understands why possibilities do not always become realities.\u00a0This difference in adult and adolescent thought can spark arguments between the generations.<\/p>\n

Here is an example.\u00a0A student in her late 30s relayed such an argument she was having with her 14-year-old son.\u00a0The son had saved a considerable amount of money and wanted to buy an old car and store it in the garage until he was old enough to drive.\u00a0He could sit in it, pretend he was driving, clean it up, and show it to his friends.\u00a0It sounded like a perfect opportunity.\u00a0The mother, however, had practical objections.\u00a0The car would just sit for several years while\u00a0deteriorating.\u00a0The son would probably\u00a0change his mind about the type of car he wanted by the time\u00a0he was old enough to drive and they would be stuck with a car that would not run. She was also concerned that having a car nearby would be too much temptation and the son might decide to sneak it out for a quick ride\u00a0before he had a permit or license. <\/del><\/p>\n

<\/del>Piaget’s theory of cognitive development ended with formal operations, but it is possible that other ways of thinking may develop after (or “post”) formal operations in adulthood (even if this thinking does not constitute a separate “stage” of development). Postformal thought<\/strong> is practical, realistic and more individualistic, but also characterized by understanding the complexities of various perspectives. As a person approaches the late 30s, chances are they make decisions out of necessity or because of prior experience and are less influenced by what others think.\u00a0Of course, this is particularly true in individualistic cultures such as the United States. Postformal thought is often described as more flexible, logical, willing to accept moral and intellectual complexities, and dialectical than previous stages in development.<\/p>\n

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