{"id":1406,"date":"2018-12-20T06:35:53","date_gmt":"2018-12-20T06:35:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&p=1406"},"modified":"2021-04-15T17:59:52","modified_gmt":"2021-04-15T17:59:52","slug":"psychosocial-development-in-late-adulthood-2","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment4\/chapter\/psychosocial-development-in-late-adulthood-2\/","title":{"raw":"Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood","rendered":"Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood"},"content":{"raw":"\"Family<\/a>\r\n\r\nOur ideas about aging, and what it means to be over 50, over 60, or even over 90, seem to be stuck somewhere back in the middle of the 20th century. We still consider 65 as standard retirement age, and we expect everyone to start slowing down and moving aside for the next generation as their age passes the half-century mark. In this section we explore psychosocial developmental theories, including Erik Erikson's theory on psychosocial development in late adulthood, and we look at\u00a0aging as it relates to work, retirement, and leisure activities for older adult. We'll also examine<\/span>\u00a0ways in which people are productive in late adulthood.<\/span>\r\n

Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood<\/h2>\r\n

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair<\/h3>\r\nAs a person grows older and enters into the retirement years, the pace of life and productivity tend to slow down, granting a person time for reflection upon their life. They may ask the existential question, \"It is okay to have been me?\" If someone sees themselves as having lived a successful life, they may see it as one filled with productivity, or according to Erik Erikson, integrity.\r\n\r\nHere integrity is said to consist of the ability to look back on one\u2019s life with a feeling of satisfaction, peace and gratitude for all that has been given and received. Erikson (1959\/1980) notes in this regard:\r\n
\"The possessor of integrity is ready to defend the dignity of his own lifestyle against all physical and economic treats. For he knows that an individual life is the accidental coincidence of but one life cycle within but one segment of history; and that for him all human integrity stands and falls with the one style of integrity of which he partakes.\" (Erikson, 1959\/1980, p. 104)<\/blockquote>\r\nThus, persons derive a sense of meaning (i.e., integrity) through careful review of how their lives have been lived (Krause, 2012). Ideally, however, integrity does not stop here, but rather continues to evolve into the virtue of wisdom. According to Erikson, this is the goal during this stage of life.\r\n\r\nIf a person see's their life as unproductive, or feel that they did not accomplish their life goals, they may become dissatisfied with life and develop what Erikson calls\u00a0despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.\u00a0This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"220\"]\"Erik Figure 1<\/strong>. Erikson emphasized the importance of integrity, and feeling a sense of accomplishment as an older person looks back on their life.[\/caption]\r\n

Erikson's Ninth Stage<\/h4>\r\nErikson collaborate with his wife, Joan, through much of his work on psychosocial development. In the Erikson's older years, they re-examined the eight stages and created additional thoughts about how development evolves during a person's 80s and 90s. After Erik Erikson passed away in 1994, Joan published a chapter on the ninth stage of development, in which she proposed (from her own experiences and Erik's notes) that older adults revisit the previous eight stages and deal with the previous conflicts in new ways, as they cope with the physical and social changes of growing old. In the first eight stages, all of the conflicts are presented in a syntonic-dystonic matter, meaning that the first term listed in the conflict is the positive, sought-after achievement and the second term is the less-desirable goal (ie. trust is more desirable than mistrust and integrity is more desirable than despair). During the ninth stage, Erikson argues that the dystonic, or less desirable outcome, comes to take precedence again. For example, an older adult may become mistrustful (trust vs. mistrust), feel more guilt about not having the abilities to do what they once did (initiative vs. guilt), feel less competent compared with others (industry vs. inferiority) lose a sense of identity as they become dependent on others (identity vs. role confusion), become increasingly isolated (intimacy vs. isolation), feel that they have less to offer society (generativity vs. stagnation). The Eriksons found that those who successfully come to terms with these changes and adjustments in later life make headway towards gerotrancendence, a term coined by gerontologist Lars Tornstam to represent a greater awareness of one's own life and connection to the universe, increased ties to the past, and a positive, transcendent, perspective about life.\r\n

Activity Theory<\/h3>\r\nDeveloped by Havighurst and Albrecht in 1953, activity theory addresses the issue of how persons can best adjust to the changing circumstances of old age\u2013e.g., retirement, illness, loss of friends and loved ones through death, etc. In addressing this issue they recommend that older adults involve themselves in voluntary and leisure organizations, child care and other forms of social interaction. Activity theory<\/strong> thus strongly\u00a0supports the avoidance of a sedentary lifestyle and considers it essential to health and happiness that the older person remains active physically and socially. In other words, the more active older adults are the more stable and positive their self-concept\u00a0will be, which\u00a0will then lead to greater life satisfaction and higher morale (Havighurst & Albrecht, 1953).\u00a0Activity theory\u00a0suggests that many people are barred\u00a0from\u00a0meaningful experiences as they age, but older adults who continue to want to remain active can work toward replacing opportunities lost with new ones.\r\n

Disengagement Theory<\/h3>\r\nDisengagement theory<\/strong>, developed by Cumming and Henry in the 1950s,\u00a0in contrast to activity theory,\u00a0emphasizes that older adults should not be discouraged from following their inclination towards solitude and greater inactivity. While not completely discounting the importance of exercise and social activity for the upkeep of physical health and personal well being, disengagement theory is opposed to artificially keeping the older person so busy with external activities that they have no time for contemplation and reflection (Cumming & Henry, 1961). In other words, disengagement theory posits that older adults in all societies undergo a process of adjustment\u00a0which\u00a0involves leaving former public and professional roles and narrowing their social horizon to the smaller circle of family and friends. This process enables the older person to die more peacefully, without the stress and distractions that come with a more socially involved life. The theory suggests that during late adulthood, the individual and society mutually withdraw. Older people become more isolated from others and less concerned or involved with life in general. This once popular theory is now criticized as being ageist and used in order to justify treating older adults as second class citizens.\r\n

Continuity Theory<\/h3>\r\nContinuity theory<\/strong>\u00a0suggests\u00a0as people age, they continue to view the self in much the same way as they did when they were younger.\u00a0An older person's\u00a0approach to problems, goals, and situations is much the same as it was\u00a0when they were younger.\u00a0They are the same individuals, but simply in older bodies.\u00a0Consequently, older adults continue to maintain their identity even as they give up previous roles.\u00a0For example, a retired Coast Guard commander attends reunions with shipmates, stays interested in new technology for home use, is meticulous in the jobs he does for friends or at church, and displays mementos\u00a0from his experiences\u00a0on the ship.\u00a0He is able to maintain a sense of self as a result. People\u00a0do not give up who\u00a0they\u00a0are as\u00a0they age.\u00a0Hopefully,\u00a0they\u00a0are able to share these aspects of\u00a0their identity with others throughout life.\u00a0Focusing on what a person can do and pursuing those interests and activities is one way to optimize and maintain self-identity.\r\n

Generativity in Late Adulthood<\/h3>\r\nPeople in late adulthood continue to be productive in many ways.\u00a0These include work, education, volunteering, family life, and intimate relationships. Older adults also experience generativity (recall Erikson's previous stage of generativity vs. stagnation) through\u00a0voting, forming and helping social institutions like community centers, churches and\u00a0 schools.\u00a0Psychoanalyst\u00a0Erik Erikson\u00a0wrote \"I am what survives me.\"\r\n

Productivity in Work<\/h4>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_943\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"565\"]\"elderly Figure 2<\/strong>. Many choose to retire at age 65, but some enjoy a productive work life well beyond their 60s.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSome continue to be productive in work. Mandatory retirement is now illegal in the United States. However, many do choose retirement by age 65 and most leave work by choice.\u00a0Those who do leave by choice adjust to retirement more easily.\u00a0Chances are, they have prepared for a smoother transition by gradually giving more attention to an avocation or interest as they approach retirement.\u00a0And they are more likely to be financially ready to retire.\u00a0Those who must leave abruptly for health reasons or because of layoffs or downsizing have a more difficult time adjusting to their new circumstances.\u00a0Men, especially, can find unexpected retirement difficult.\u00a0Women may feel less of an identify loss after retirement because much of their identity may have come from family roles as well.\u00a0But women tend to have poorer retirement funds accumulated from work and if they take their retirement funds in a lump sum (be that from their own or from a deceased husband\u2019s funds), are more at risk of outliving those funds.\u00a0Women need better financial retirement planning.\r\n\r\nSixteen percent of adults over 65 were in the labor force in 2008 (U. S. Census Bureau 2011).\u00a0 Globally, 6.2 percent are in the labor force and this number is expected to reach 10.1 million by 2016.\u00a0 Many adults 65 and older continue to work either full-time or part-time either for income or pleasure or both.\u00a0\u00a0In 2003, 39 percent of full-time workers over 55 were women over the age of 70; 53 percent were men over 70.\u00a0This\u00a0increase in numbers of older adults is likely to mean that more will continue to part of the workforce in years to come.\u00a0(He et al., article, U. S. Census, 2005).\r\n

Volunteering: Face-to-face and Virtually<\/h4>\r\nAbout 40 percent of older adults are involved in some type of structured, face-to-face, volunteer work.\u00a0 But many older adults, about 60 percent, engage in\u00a0a sort of informal type of volunteerism\u00a0helping out neighbors or friends rather than working in an organization (Berger, 2005). They may help a friend by taking them somewhere or shopping for them, etc. Some do participate in organized volunteer programs but interestingly enough, those who do tend to work part-time as well. Those who retire and do not work are less likely to feel that they have a contribution to make. (It's as if when one gets used to staying at home, their confidence to go out into the world diminishes.) And those who have recently retired are more likely to volunteer than those over 75 years of age.\r\n\r\nNew opportunities exist for older adults to serve as\u00a0virtual volunteers\u00a0by dialoguing online with others from around their world and sharing their support, interests, and expertise.\u00a0According to an article from\u00a0AARP\u00a0(American Association of Retired Persons), virtual volunteerism has increased from 3,000 in 1998 to over 40,000 participants in 2005.\u00a0These volunteer opportunities range from helping teens with their writing to communicating with \u2018neighbors\u2019 in villages of developing countries.\u00a0Virtual volunteering is available to those who cannot engage in face-to-face interactions and opens up a new world of possibilities and ways to connect, maintain identity, and be productive (Uscher, 2006).\r\n

Education<\/h4>\r\nTwenty percent of people over 65 have a bachelors or higher degree. And over 7 million people over 65 take adult education courses (U. S. Census Bureau, 2011).\u00a0 Lifelong learning through continuing education programs on college campuses or programs known as \u201cElderhostels\u201d which allow older adults to travel abroad, live on campus and study provide enriching experiences.\u00a0Academic courses as well as practical skills such as computer classes, foreign languages, budgeting, and holistic medicines are among the courses offered.\u00a0Older adults who have higher levels of education are more likely to take continuing education.\u00a0But offering more educational experiences to a diverse group of older adults, including those who are institutionalized in nursing homes, can enhance the quality of life.\r\n

Religious Activities<\/h4>\r\nPeople tend to become more involved in prayer and religious activities as they age. This provides a social network as well as a belief system\u00a0which can combats<\/del> the fear of death.\u00a0Religious activities provide a focus for volunteerism and other activities as well. For example, one elderly woman prides herself on knitting prayer shawls that are given to those who are\u00a0sick. Another serves on the alter guild and is responsible for keeping robes and linens clean and ready for communion.\r\n

Political Activism<\/h4>\r\nThe elderly are very politically active.\u00a0They have high rates of voting and engage in letter writing to congress on issues that not only affect them, but on a wide range of domestic and foreign concerns.\u00a0In the past three presidential elections, over 70 percent of people 65 and older showed up at the polls to vote (U. S. Census Bureau).\r\n
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Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16660\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

Attitudes about Aging<\/h2>\r\nStereotypes about people of in late adulthood lead many to assume that aging automatically brings poor health and mental decline.\u00a0These stereotypes are reflected in everyday conversations, the media and even in greeting cards (Overstreet, 2006).\u00a0The following examples serve to illustrate.\r\n

1) Grandpa, fishing pole in one hand, pipe in the other, sits on the ground and completes a story being told to his grandson with \". . . and that, Jimmy, is the tale of my very first colonoscopy.\"\u00a0The message inside the card reads, \"Welcome to the gross personal story years.\"\u00a0(Shoebox, A Division of Hallmark Cards.)<\/p>\r\n

2) An older woman in a barber shop cuts the hair of an older, dozing man.\u00a0\"So, what do you say today, Earl?\" she asks.\u00a0The inside message reads, \"Welcome to the age where pretty much anyplace is a good place for a nap.\"\u00a0(Shoebox, A Division of Hallmark Cards.)<\/p>\r\n

3) A crotchety old man with wire glasses, a crumpled hat, and a bow tie grimaces and the card reads, \"Another year older?\u00a0You're at the age where you should start eatin' right, exercisin', and takin' vitamins . . .\"\u00a0The inside reads, \"Of course you're also at the age where you can ignore advice by actin like you can't hear it.\"\u00a0(Hallmark Cards, Inc.)<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5845\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]\"Word Figure 3<\/strong>. Word used to describe the elderly are often negative and biased. Research by the Australain Human Rights Commusion polled people on the following question: \"Thinking about everything you see and hear in the media (including on TV, online, on the radio and in newspapers and magazines), how does the media portray older people?\" Their responses are listed here, with the larger words being listed more often. Retrieved from the\u00a0https:\/\/www.humanrights.gov.au\/our-work\/chapter-4-role-and-influence-media.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOf course, these cards are made because they are popular.\u00a0Age is not revered in the United States, and so laughing about getting older is one way to get relief.\u00a0The attitudes above\u00a0are examples of\u00a0ageism,\u00a0prejudice based on age.\u00a0Ageism<\/strong> is prejudice and discrimination that is directed at older people. This view suggests that older people are less in command of their mental faculties. Older people are viewed more negatively than younger people on a variety of traits, particularly those relating to general competence and attractiveness.\u00a0Stereotypes such as these can lead to a\u00a0self-fulfilling prophecy\u00a0in which beliefs about one's ability results in actions that make it come true.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3771\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"240\"]\"Headshot<\/a> Figure 4<\/strong>.What comes to mind when you think about an elderly person? Do you view this picture of an older gentleman as positive or negative, capable and independent or frail and needing assistance?[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAgeism is a modern and predominately western cultural phenomenon\u2014in the American colonial period, long life was an indication of virtue, and Asian and Native American societies view older people as wise, storehouses of information about the past,\u00a0and deserving of respect. Many preindustrial societies observed\u00a0gerontocracy<\/strong>, a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society\u2019s oldest members. In some countries today, the elderly still have influence and power and their vast knowledge is respected, but this reverence has decreased in many places due to social factors. A positive, optimistic outlook about aging and the impact one can have on improving health is essential to health and longevity.\u00a0Removing societal stereotypes about aging and helping older adults reject those notions of aging is another way to promote health in older populations.<\/span>\r\n\r\nIn addition to ageism, racism is yet another concern for minority populations as they age. The number of blacks above the age if 65 is projected to grow from around 4 million now to 12 million by 2060. Racism towards blacks and other minorities throughout the lifetime results in many older minorities having fewer resources,\u00a0 more chronic health conditions, and significant health disparities when compared against<\/del> to\u00a0older white Americans.\u00a0Racism towards\u00a0older adults\u00a0from diverse backgrounds\u00a0has resulted in\u00a0<\/span>them having limited access to community resources such as grocery stores, housing, health care providers, and transportation.\r\n

Elderly Abuse<\/h2>\r\nNursing homes have been publicized as places where older adults are at risk of abuse.\u00a0Abuse and neglect of nursing home residents is more often found in facilities that are run down and understaffed.\u00a0However, older adults are more frequently abused by family members.\u00a0The\u00a0most commonly reported types of abuse are financial abuse and neglect.\u00a0Victims are usually very frail and impaired and perpetrators are usually dependent on the victims for support.\u00a0Prosecuting a family member who has financially abused a parent is very difficult.\u00a0The\u00a0victim may be reluctant to press charges and the court dockets are often very full resulting in long waits before a case is heard. \"Granny dumping\" or the practice of family members abandoning older family members with severe disabilities in emergency rooms is a growing problem; an estimated 100,000 and 200,000 are dumped each year (Tanne in Berk, 2007).\r\n
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Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis clip from the Big Think examines some of the negative prejudices about the elderly.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/oX3Lw5JMRi4[\/embed]\r\n\r\nYou can watch another video from Ashton Applewhite in this TED talk \"Let's End Ageism.\"<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16661\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

Relationships in Late Adulthood<\/h2>\r\nDuring late adulthood, many people find that their\u00a0relationships\u00a0with their adult children, siblings, spouses, or life partners change. Roles may also change, as many are grandparents or great-grandparents, caregivers to even older parents or spouses, or receivers of care in a nursing home or other care facility.\r\n

Grandparenting<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3769\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"415\"]\"Grandmother<\/a> Figure 5<\/strong>. Grandparenting styes can vary depending on a variety of factors such as relationships, personality, and proximity.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIt has become increasingly common for grandparents to live with and raise their grandchildren, or also to move back in with adult children in their later years. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 2.7 million grandparents raising their grandchildren in 2009.\u00a0<\/sup>The dramatic increase in grandparent-headed households has been attributed to many factors including parental substance abuse.<\/sup>\r\n\r\nGrandparenting typically begins in midlife rather than late adulthood, but because people are living longer, they can anticipate being grandparents for longer periods of time.\u00a0Cherlin and Furstenberg (1986) describe three styles of grandparents:\r\n

1. Remote:\u00a0These grandparents rarely see their grandchildren.\u00a0Usually they live far away from the grandchildren, but may also have a distant relationship.\u00a0Contact is typically made on special occasions such as holidays or birthdays.\u00a0Thirty percent of the grandparents studied by Cherlin and Furstenberg were remote.<\/p>\r\n

2. Companionate Grandparents: \u00a0Fifty-five percent of grandparents studied were described as companionate. These grandparents do things with the grandchild but have little authority or control over them. They prefer to spend time with them without interfering in parenting. They are more like friends to their grandchildren.<\/p>\r\n

3. Involved Grandparents:\u00a0Fifteen percent of grandparents were described as involved. These grandparents take a very active role in their grandchild's life. The grandchildren might even live with the grandparent. The involved grandparent is one who has frequent contact with and authority over the grandchild.<\/p>\r\nAn increasing number of grandparents are raising grandchildren today.\u00a0Issues such as custody, visitation, and continued contact between grandparents and grandchildren after parental divorce are contemporary concerns.\r\n

Marriage and Divorce<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nMost males and females aged 65\u00a0and older had been married at\u00a0some point in their lives.\u00a0According to the\u00a0U.S. Census Bureau, 2016 American Community Survey,\u00a0among the\u00a0population 65 and older, males\u00a0<\/span>were significantly more likely to be\u00a0married (70 percent) compared\u00a0<\/span>with females (44 percent) in the\u00a0same age group.<\/span>\u00a0<\/span>Even at the oldest age group, 85\u00a0and older, 54 percent of males\u00a0were still married compared with\u00a015 percent of females.\r\n\r\nTwelve percent of older men and 15% percent of older women have been\u00a0divorced and about 6\u00a0percent of older adults have never married. Many married couples feel their marriage has improved with time and the emotional intensity and level of conflict that might have been experienced earlier, has declined.\u00a0This\u00a0is not to say that bad marriages become good ones over the years, but that those marriages that were very conflict-ridden may no longer be together, and that many of the disagreements couples might have had earlier in their marriages may no longer be concerns.\u00a0Children have grown and the division of labor in the home has probably been established.\u00a0Men tend to report being satisfied with marriage\u00a0more than do women.\u00a0Women are more likely to complain about caring for a spouse who is ill or accommodating a retired husband and planning activities.\u00a0Older couples continue to engage in sexual activity, but with less focus on intercourse and more on cuddling, caressing, and oral sex (Carroll, 2007).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_941\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"500\"]\"Elder Figure 6<\/strong>. Both divorce and remarriage are on the rise for older Americans.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDivorce after long-term marriage does occur, but is not as common as earlier divorces, despite rising divorce rates for those above age 65. Older adults who have been divorced since midlife tend to have settled into comfortable lives and, if they have raised children, to be proud of their accomplishments as single parents. Remarriage is also on the rise for older adults; in 2014,\u00a050% of adults ages 65 and older had remarried, up from 34% in 1960. Men are also more likely to remarry than women.\r\n

Widowhood<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nWith increasing age, women were less likely to be married or\u00a0divorced but more likely to be\u00a0widowed, reflecting a longer life\u00a0expectancy relative to men. About\u00a02 out of 10 women aged 65 to 74\u00a0were widowed compared with 4\u00a0out of 10 women aged 75 to 84\u00a0and 7 out of 10 women 85 and\u00a0older. More than twice as many\u00a0women 85 and older were widowed (72 percent) compared to\u00a0men of the same age (35 percent). The death of a spouse is one of life's most disruptive experiences. It is especially hard on men who lose their wives. Often widowers do not have a network of friends or family members to fall back on and may have difficulty expressing their emotions to facilitate grief. Also, they may have been very dependent on their mates for routine tasks such as cooking, cleaning, etc.\r\n\r\nWidows may have less difficulty because they do have a social network and can take care of their own daily needs. They may have more difficulty financially if their husband's have handled all the finances in the past. They are much less likely to remarry because many do not wish to and because there are fewer men available. At 65, there are 73 men to every 100 women. The sex ratio becomes even further imbalanced\u00a0at 85 with 48 men to every 100 women (U. S.\u00a0Census Bureau, 2011).\r\n

Loneliness or solitude?<\/h4>\r\nLoneliness is a discrepancy between the social contact a person has and the contacts a person wants (Brehm et al., 2002).\u00a0It can result from social or emotional isolation.\u00a0Women tend to experience loneliness as a result of social isolation; men from emotional isolation.\u00a0Loneliness can be accompanied by a lack of self-worth, impatience, desperation, and depression.\u00a0This\u00a0can lead to suicide, particularly in older, white men who have the highest suicide rates of any age group;<\/span> higher than Blacks, and higher than for females.\u00a0Rates of suicide continue to climb and peaks in males after age 85 (National Center for Health Statistics, CDC, 2002).\r\n\r\nBeing alone does not always result in loneliness.\u00a0For some, it means solitude.\u00a0Solitude involves gaining self-awareness, taking care of the self, being comfortable alone, and\u00a0pursuing one\u2019s interests (Brehm et al., 2002).\r\n\r\nCouples who remarry after midlife, tend to be happier in their marriages than in first marriage. These partners are likely to be more financially independent, have children who are grown, and enjoy a greater emotional wisdom that comes with experience.\r\n

Single, Cohabiting, and Remarried Older Adults<\/h3>\r\nAbout 6 percent of adults never marry. Many have long-term relationships, however. The never married tend to be very involved in family and care giving and do not appear to be particularly unhappy during late adulthood, especially if they have a healthy network of friends.\u00a0Friendships tend to be an important influence in life satisfaction during late adulthood. Friends may be more influential than family members for many older adults.\u00a0According to\u00a0socioemotional selectivity theory<\/strong>,\u00a0older adults become more selective in their friendships than when they were younger (Carstensen, Fung, & Charles, 2003).\u00a0Friendships are not formed in order to enhance status or careers, and may be based purely on a sense of connection or the enjoyment of being together.\u00a0Most elderly people have at least one close friend. These friends may provide emotional as well as physical support. Being able to talk with friends and rely on others is very important during this stage of life.\r\n\r\nAbout 4 percent of older couples chose cohabitation over marriage (Chevan, 1996).\u00a0The Pew Research Center reported\u00a0in 2017 that the number of cohabiters over age 50 rose to 4 million from 2.3 million over the decade, and\u00a0found\u00a0<\/span>the number over age 65 doubled to about 900,000.\u00a0As discussed in our lesson on early adulthood, these couples may prefer cohabitation for financial reasons, may be same-sex couples who cannot legally marry, or couples who do not want to marry because of previous dissatisfaction with marital relationships.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n

Elderly and LBGTQ+<\/h3>\r\nThere has been a growth of interest in\u00a0lesbian,\u00a0gay,\u00a0bisexual,\u00a0transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+)\u00a0aging\u00a0in recent years.<\/sup>\u00a0Many\u00a0retirement issues for\u00a0lesbian,\u00a0gay,\u00a0bisexual,\u00a0transgender\u00a0(LGBT) and\u00a0intersex\u00a0people\u00a0are unique from their non-LGBTI counterparts and these populations often have to take extra steps addressing their employment, health, legal and housing concerns to ensure their needs are met. Throughout the\u00a0United States, there are 1.5 million adults over the age of 65 who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual, and two million people above the age of 50 who identify as such.\u00a0That number is expected to double by 2030, as estimated in a study done by the Institute for Multigenerational Health at the\u00a0University of Washington.<\/sup>\u00a0While\u00a0LGBTQ+ people have\u00a0increasingly become more visible and accepted into mainstream cultures, LGBTQ+ elders and retirees are still considered a newer phenomenon, which creates both challenges and opportunities as they\u00a0redefine some commonly held beliefs about aging.\r\n\r\nLGBTQ+ individuals are less likely to have strong\u00a0family\u00a0support systems in place to have relatives to care for them during aging. They are twice as likely to enter old age living as a single person; and two and a half times more likely to live alone. Because institutionalized\u00a0homophobia\u00a0as well as cultural\u00a0discrimination\u00a0and\u00a0harassment\u00a0still exist, they are less likely to access health care, housing, or social services or when they do, find the experience stressful or demeaning.\u00a0<\/sup>Joel Ginsberg, executive director of the Gay Lesbian Medical Association, asserts \"only by pursuing both strategies, encouraging institutional change and encouraging...and empowering individuals to ask for what they want will we end up with quality care for LGBT people.\"\r\n\r\nThese older adults have concerns over health insurance, being able to share living quarters in nursing homes and assisted living residences where staff members tend not to be accepting of homosexuality and bisexuality.\u00a0SAGE (Senior Action in a Gay Environment) is an advocacy group working on remedying these concerns.\u00a0Same-sex couples who have endured prejudice and discrimination through the years and can rely upon one another continue to have support through late adulthood.<\/span>\r\n\r\nLGBTQ+ Aging Centers have opened in several major metropolitan areas with the goal of training long-term care providers about LGBT-specific issues, an area of frequent discrimination. Legislative solutions are available as well: \"California\u00a0is the only state with a law saying the gay elderly have special needs, like other members of minority groups. A new law encourages training for employees and contractors who work with the elderly and permits state financing of projects like gay senior centers.\" Twenty states prohibit discrimination in housing and public accommodation on the basis of sexual orientation.\r\n

Older Adults, Caregiving,\u00a0and Long-Term Care<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3727\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"359\"]\"Population Figure 7<\/strong>. More elderly are living in homes with their children or grandchildren.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOlder adults do not typically relocate far from their previous places of residence during late adulthood.\u00a0A minority lives in planned retirement communities that require residents to be of a certain age.\u00a0However, many older adults live in age-segregated neighborhoods that have become segregated as original inhabitants have aged and children have moved\u00a0on.\u00a0A major concern in future city planning and development will be whether older adults wish to live in age-integrated or age-segregated communities.\r\n\r\nOver 60 million Americans, or 19% of the population, lived in multigenerational households, or homes with at least two adult generations. It has become an ongoing trend for elderly generations to move in and live with their children, as they can give them support and help with everyday living.\r\n\r\nMost (70 percent) of older adults who require care receive that care in the home.\u00a0Most are cared for by their spouse, or by a daughter or daughter-in-law.\u00a0However, those who are not cared for at home are institutionalized.\u00a0In 2008, 1.6 million out of the total\u00a038.9 million Americans age 65 and older were nursing home residents (U. S. Census Bureau, 2011).\u00a0Among 65-74, 11 per 1,000 adults aged 65 and older were in nursing homes.\u00a0That number increases to 182 per 1,000 after age 85.\u00a0More residents are women than men, and more are Black than white.\u00a0As the population of those over age\u00a085 continues to increase, more will require nursing home care.\u00a0Meeting the psychological and social as well as physical needs of nursing home residents is a growing concern.\u00a0Rather than focusing primarily on food, hygiene, and medication, quality of life\u00a0for the seniors\u00a0within these facilities is important.\u00a0Residents of nursing homes are sometimes stripped of their identity as their personal possessions and reminders of their life are taken away.\u00a0A rigid routine in which the residents have little voice can be alienating to\u00a0anyone, but more so for an older adult. Routines that encourage passivity and dependence can be damaging to self-esteem and lead to further deterioration of health.\u00a0Greater attention needs to be given to promoting successful aging within institutions.\r\n
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Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16662\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

\"Family<\/a><\/p>\n

Our ideas about aging, and what it means to be over 50, over 60, or even over 90, seem to be stuck somewhere back in the middle of the 20th century. We still consider 65 as standard retirement age, and we expect everyone to start slowing down and moving aside for the next generation as their age passes the half-century mark. In this section we explore psychosocial developmental theories, including Erik Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development in late adulthood, and we look at\u00a0aging as it relates to work, retirement, and leisure activities for older adult. We’ll also examine<\/span>\u00a0ways in which people are productive in late adulthood.<\/span><\/p>\n

Psychosocial Development in Late Adulthood<\/h2>\n

Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair<\/h3>\n

As a person grows older and enters into the retirement years, the pace of life and productivity tend to slow down, granting a person time for reflection upon their life. They may ask the existential question, “It is okay to have been me?” If someone sees themselves as having lived a successful life, they may see it as one filled with productivity, or according to Erik Erikson, integrity.<\/p>\n

Here integrity is said to consist of the ability to look back on one\u2019s life with a feeling of satisfaction, peace and gratitude for all that has been given and received. Erikson (1959\/1980) notes in this regard:<\/p>\n

“The possessor of integrity is ready to defend the dignity of his own lifestyle against all physical and economic treats. For he knows that an individual life is the accidental coincidence of but one life cycle within but one segment of history; and that for him all human integrity stands and falls with the one style of integrity of which he partakes.” (Erikson, 1959\/1980, p. 104)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

Thus, persons derive a sense of meaning (i.e., integrity) through careful review of how their lives have been lived (Krause, 2012). Ideally, however, integrity does not stop here, but rather continues to evolve into the virtue of wisdom. According to Erikson, this is the goal during this stage of life.<\/p>\n

If a person see’s their life as unproductive, or feel that they did not accomplish their life goals, they may become dissatisfied with life and develop what Erikson calls\u00a0despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.\u00a0This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).<\/p>\n

\"Erik<\/p>\n

Figure 1<\/strong>. Erikson emphasized the importance of integrity, and feeling a sense of accomplishment as an older person looks back on their life.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Erikson’s Ninth Stage<\/h4>\n

Erikson collaborate with his wife, Joan, through much of his work on psychosocial development. In the Erikson’s older years, they re-examined the eight stages and created additional thoughts about how development evolves during a person’s 80s and 90s. After Erik Erikson passed away in 1994, Joan published a chapter on the ninth stage of development, in which she proposed (from her own experiences and Erik’s notes) that older adults revisit the previous eight stages and deal with the previous conflicts in new ways, as they cope with the physical and social changes of growing old. In the first eight stages, all of the conflicts are presented in a syntonic-dystonic matter, meaning that the first term listed in the conflict is the positive, sought-after achievement and the second term is the less-desirable goal (ie. trust is more desirable than mistrust and integrity is more desirable than despair). During the ninth stage, Erikson argues that the dystonic, or less desirable outcome, comes to take precedence again. For example, an older adult may become mistrustful (trust vs. mistrust), feel more guilt about not having the abilities to do what they once did (initiative vs. guilt), feel less competent compared with others (industry vs. inferiority) lose a sense of identity as they become dependent on others (identity vs. role confusion), become increasingly isolated (intimacy vs. isolation), feel that they have less to offer society (generativity vs. stagnation). The Eriksons found that those who successfully come to terms with these changes and adjustments in later life make headway towards gerotrancendence, a term coined by gerontologist Lars Tornstam to represent a greater awareness of one’s own life and connection to the universe, increased ties to the past, and a positive, transcendent, perspective about life.<\/p>\n

Activity Theory<\/h3>\n

Developed by Havighurst and Albrecht in 1953, activity theory addresses the issue of how persons can best adjust to the changing circumstances of old age\u2013e.g., retirement, illness, loss of friends and loved ones through death, etc. In addressing this issue they recommend that older adults involve themselves in voluntary and leisure organizations, child care and other forms of social interaction. Activity theory<\/strong> thus strongly\u00a0supports the avoidance of a sedentary lifestyle and considers it essential to health and happiness that the older person remains active physically and socially. In other words, the more active older adults are the more stable and positive their self-concept\u00a0will be, which\u00a0will then lead to greater life satisfaction and higher morale (Havighurst & Albrecht, 1953).\u00a0Activity theory\u00a0suggests that many people are barred\u00a0from\u00a0meaningful experiences as they age, but older adults who continue to want to remain active can work toward replacing opportunities lost with new ones.<\/p>\n

Disengagement Theory<\/h3>\n

Disengagement theory<\/strong>, developed by Cumming and Henry in the 1950s,\u00a0in contrast to activity theory,\u00a0emphasizes that older adults should not be discouraged from following their inclination towards solitude and greater inactivity. While not completely discounting the importance of exercise and social activity for the upkeep of physical health and personal well being, disengagement theory is opposed to artificially keeping the older person so busy with external activities that they have no time for contemplation and reflection (Cumming & Henry, 1961). In other words, disengagement theory posits that older adults in all societies undergo a process of adjustment\u00a0which\u00a0involves leaving former public and professional roles and narrowing their social horizon to the smaller circle of family and friends. This process enables the older person to die more peacefully, without the stress and distractions that come with a more socially involved life. The theory suggests that during late adulthood, the individual and society mutually withdraw. Older people become more isolated from others and less concerned or involved with life in general. This once popular theory is now criticized as being ageist and used in order to justify treating older adults as second class citizens.<\/p>\n

Continuity Theory<\/h3>\n

Continuity theory<\/strong>\u00a0suggests\u00a0as people age, they continue to view the self in much the same way as they did when they were younger.\u00a0An older person’s\u00a0approach to problems, goals, and situations is much the same as it was\u00a0when they were younger.\u00a0They are the same individuals, but simply in older bodies.\u00a0Consequently, older adults continue to maintain their identity even as they give up previous roles.\u00a0For example, a retired Coast Guard commander attends reunions with shipmates, stays interested in new technology for home use, is meticulous in the jobs he does for friends or at church, and displays mementos\u00a0from his experiences\u00a0on the ship.\u00a0He is able to maintain a sense of self as a result. People\u00a0do not give up who\u00a0they\u00a0are as\u00a0they age.\u00a0Hopefully,\u00a0they\u00a0are able to share these aspects of\u00a0their identity with others throughout life.\u00a0Focusing on what a person can do and pursuing those interests and activities is one way to optimize and maintain self-identity.<\/p>\n

Generativity in Late Adulthood<\/h3>\n

People in late adulthood continue to be productive in many ways.\u00a0These include work, education, volunteering, family life, and intimate relationships. Older adults also experience generativity (recall Erikson’s previous stage of generativity vs. stagnation) through\u00a0voting, forming and helping social institutions like community centers, churches and\u00a0 schools.\u00a0Psychoanalyst\u00a0Erik Erikson\u00a0wrote “I am what survives me.”<\/p>\n

Productivity in Work<\/h4>\n
\"elderly<\/p>\n

Figure 2<\/strong>. Many choose to retire at age 65, but some enjoy a productive work life well beyond their 60s.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Some continue to be productive in work. Mandatory retirement is now illegal in the United States. However, many do choose retirement by age 65 and most leave work by choice.\u00a0Those who do leave by choice adjust to retirement more easily.\u00a0Chances are, they have prepared for a smoother transition by gradually giving more attention to an avocation or interest as they approach retirement.\u00a0And they are more likely to be financially ready to retire.\u00a0Those who must leave abruptly for health reasons or because of layoffs or downsizing have a more difficult time adjusting to their new circumstances.\u00a0Men, especially, can find unexpected retirement difficult.\u00a0Women may feel less of an identify loss after retirement because much of their identity may have come from family roles as well.\u00a0But women tend to have poorer retirement funds accumulated from work and if they take their retirement funds in a lump sum (be that from their own or from a deceased husband\u2019s funds), are more at risk of outliving those funds.\u00a0Women need better financial retirement planning.<\/p>\n

Sixteen percent of adults over 65 were in the labor force in 2008 (U. S. Census Bureau 2011).\u00a0 Globally, 6.2 percent are in the labor force and this number is expected to reach 10.1 million by 2016.\u00a0 Many adults 65 and older continue to work either full-time or part-time either for income or pleasure or both.\u00a0\u00a0In 2003, 39 percent of full-time workers over 55 were women over the age of 70; 53 percent were men over 70.\u00a0This\u00a0increase in numbers of older adults is likely to mean that more will continue to part of the workforce in years to come.\u00a0(He et al., article, U. S. Census, 2005).<\/p>\n

Volunteering: Face-to-face and Virtually<\/h4>\n

About 40 percent of older adults are involved in some type of structured, face-to-face, volunteer work.\u00a0 But many older adults, about 60 percent, engage in\u00a0a sort of informal type of volunteerism\u00a0helping out neighbors or friends rather than working in an organization (Berger, 2005). They may help a friend by taking them somewhere or shopping for them, etc. Some do participate in organized volunteer programs but interestingly enough, those who do tend to work part-time as well. Those who retire and do not work are less likely to feel that they have a contribution to make. (It’s as if when one gets used to staying at home, their confidence to go out into the world diminishes.) And those who have recently retired are more likely to volunteer than those over 75 years of age.<\/p>\n

New opportunities exist for older adults to serve as\u00a0virtual volunteers\u00a0by dialoguing online with others from around their world and sharing their support, interests, and expertise.\u00a0According to an article from\u00a0AARP\u00a0(American Association of Retired Persons), virtual volunteerism has increased from 3,000 in 1998 to over 40,000 participants in 2005.\u00a0These volunteer opportunities range from helping teens with their writing to communicating with \u2018neighbors\u2019 in villages of developing countries.\u00a0Virtual volunteering is available to those who cannot engage in face-to-face interactions and opens up a new world of possibilities and ways to connect, maintain identity, and be productive (Uscher, 2006).<\/p>\n

Education<\/h4>\n

Twenty percent of people over 65 have a bachelors or higher degree. And over 7 million people over 65 take adult education courses (U. S. Census Bureau, 2011).\u00a0 Lifelong learning through continuing education programs on college campuses or programs known as \u201cElderhostels\u201d which allow older adults to travel abroad, live on campus and study provide enriching experiences.\u00a0Academic courses as well as practical skills such as computer classes, foreign languages, budgeting, and holistic medicines are among the courses offered.\u00a0Older adults who have higher levels of education are more likely to take continuing education.\u00a0But offering more educational experiences to a diverse group of older adults, including those who are institutionalized in nursing homes, can enhance the quality of life.<\/p>\n

Religious Activities<\/h4>\n

People tend to become more involved in prayer and religious activities as they age. This provides a social network as well as a belief system\u00a0which can combats<\/del> the fear of death.\u00a0Religious activities provide a focus for volunteerism and other activities as well. For example, one elderly woman prides herself on knitting prayer shawls that are given to those who are\u00a0sick. Another serves on the alter guild and is responsible for keeping robes and linens clean and ready for communion.<\/p>\n

Political Activism<\/h4>\n

The elderly are very politically active.\u00a0They have high rates of voting and engage in letter writing to congress on issues that not only affect them, but on a wide range of domestic and foreign concerns.\u00a0In the past three presidential elections, over 70 percent of people 65 and older showed up at the polls to vote (U. S. Census Bureau).<\/p>\n

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Try It<\/h3>\n

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