{"id":1186,"date":"2018-12-17T02:17:12","date_gmt":"2018-12-17T02:17:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1186"},"modified":"2019-09-11T18:43:37","modified_gmt":"2019-09-11T18:43:37","slug":"behavioral-and-cognitive-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/chapter\/behavioral-and-cognitive-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Behavioral and Cognitive Theories","rendered":"Behavioral and Cognitive Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you'll learn to do: explain key principles of behaviorism and cognitive psychology<\/h2>\r\n<h2><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-3585 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/19192515\/Watching.jpg\" alt=\"Two children shown from behind sitting on a pathway overlooking a town\" width=\"561\" height=\"422\" \/><\/h2>\r\nIs all behavior learned from the environment? Should psychology, as science, focus on\u00a0observable behavior\u2014the result of stimulus-response, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion? Is there little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals? These are types of questions considered by behaviorists, which we'll learn more about in this section. We'll also consider cognitive theories, which examine the construction of\u00a0thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of classical conditioning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of operant conditioning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0social learning theory<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0Piaget's theory of cognitive development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe information processing approaches to cognitive development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Exploring Behavior<\/h2>\r\n<h3>The Behavioral Perspective: A Focus on Observable Behavior<\/h3>\r\nThe <strong>behavioral perspective<\/strong> is the psychological approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment.\u00a0Behaviorism\u00a0is a\u00a0theory\u00a0of learning, and learning theories focus on how we respond to events or stimuli rather than emphasizing internal factors that motivate our actions.\u00a0These theories provide an explanation of how experience can change what we do.\r\n\r\nBehaviorism\u00a0emerged early in the 20th century and became a major force in American psychology. Championed by psychologists such as John B. Watson (1878\u20131958) and B. F. Skinner (1904\u20131990), behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849\u20131936) influenced early behaviorism in America. His work on conditioned learning, popularly referred to as classical conditioning, provided support for the notion that learning and behavior were controlled by events in the environment and could be explained with no reference to mind or consciousness (Fancher, 1987).\r\n<h3>Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Classical conditioning<\/strong>\u00a0theory helps us to understand how our responses to one situation become attached to new situations. For example, a smell might remind us of a time when we were a kid. If you went to a new cafe with the same smell as your elementary cafeteria, it might evoke the feelings you had when you were in school. Or a song on the radio might remind you of a memorable evening you spent with your first true love. Or, if you hear your entire name (Isaiah Wilmington Brewer, for instance) called as you walk across the stage to get your diploma and it makes you tense because it reminds you of how your father used to use your full name when he was mad at you, then you've been classically conditioned.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_568\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"140\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18053749\/Pavlov.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-568 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18053749\/Pavlov.png\" alt=\"Photo of Ivan Pavlov in his older years, with a white beard, wearing a suit and tie.\" width=\"140\" height=\"198\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Ivan Pavlov[\/caption]\r\n\r\nClassical conditioning explains how we develop many of our emotional responses to people or events or our \"gut level\" reactions to situations. New situations may bring about an old response because the two have become connected. Attachments form in this way. Addictions are affected by classical conditioning, as anyone who's tried to quit smoking can tell you. When you try to quit, everything that was associated with smoking makes you crave a cigarette.\r\n<h3>Pavlov and Classical Conditioning<\/h3>\r\nIvan Pavlov\u00a0(1849\u20131936)\u00a0was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. \"This,\" he thought, \"is not natural!\" One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when the food hit their palate, but <em>before<\/em> the food comes? Of course, what happened is that the dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The keyword here is \"learned.\"\r\n\r\nA learned response is called a \"conditioned\" response. Pavlov began to experiment with this \"psychic\" reflex. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov's jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).\r\n<figure id=\"Figure06_02_Classical\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"753\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/0a68ead5badfa5d1dd5c6f501ed8f264ca3dacaf\/CNX_Psych_06_02_Classical.jpg\" alt=\"Two illustrations are labeled \u201cbefore conditioning\u201d and show a dog salivating over a dish of food, and a dog not salivating while a bell is rung. An illustration labeled \u201cduring conditioning\u201d shows a dog salivating over a bowl of food while a bell is rung. An illustration labeled \u201cafter conditioning\u201d shows a dog salivating while a bell is rung.\" width=\"753\" height=\"564\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nView the following video\u00a0to learn more about Pavlov and his dogs:\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793437&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hhqumfpxuzI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-cjcaec3z-hhqumfpxuzI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Watson and Behaviorism<\/h3>\r\nLet's think about how classical conditioning is used on people, and not just with dogs. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.\u00a0Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on\u00a0Pavlov\u2019s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology.\u00a0He established the psychological school of\u00a0behaviorism, after doing research on\u00a0animal behavior. This school was extremely influential in the middle of the 20th century when\u00a0B.F. Skinner\u00a0developed it further.\r\n\r\nWatson believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public. He believed that parents could be taught to help shape their children's behavior and tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18-month-old boy named \"Little Albert.\" Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert's favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced.\r\n\r\nWatson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.\u00a0Parenting advice was not the legacy Watson left us, however; where he really made his impact was in advertising. After Watson left academia, he went into the world of business and showed companies how to tie something that brings about a natural positive feeling to their products to enhance sales. Thus the union of sex and advertising!\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning: Little Albert<\/h3>\r\nView scenes from John Watson\u2019s experiment in which Little Albert was conditioned to respond in fear to furry objects.\u00a0As you watch the video, look closely at Little Albert\u2019s reactions and the manner in which Watson and Rayner present the stimuli before and after conditioning.\u00a0In the experiment with Little Albert, check to see if you can identify the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses: identify the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and, after conditioning, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935244&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=FMnhyGozLyE&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-6k9ha5is-FMnhyGozLyE\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16519\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Operant Conditioning<\/h3>\r\nNow we turn to the second type of associative learning, operant conditioning. In <strong>operant conditioning<\/strong>, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence (Table 1). A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future. For example, Spirit, a dolphin at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, does a flip in the air when her trainer blows a whistle. The consequence is that she gets a fish.\r\n\r\nPsychologist B. F. Skinner saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn\u2019t account for new behaviors such as riding a bike. He proposed a theory about how such behaviors come about. Skinner believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments. His idea that learning is the result of consequences is based on the <strong>law of effect<\/strong>, which was first proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Essentially, if an organism does something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again. If an organism does something that does not bring about a desired result, the organism is less likely to do it again. An example of the law of effect is in employment. One of the reasons (and often the main reason) we show up for work is because we get paid to do so. If we stop getting paid, we will likely stop showing up\u2014even if we love our job.\r\n\r\nWorking with Thorndike\u2019s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938). He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber, which has come to be known as a \u201cSkinner box\u201d (Figure 1). A Skinner box contains a lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated with certain behaviors. A recorder counts the number of responses made by the animal.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224804\/CNX_Psych_06_03_Skinnerbox_n.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows B.F. Skinner. An illustration shows a rat in a Skinner box: a chamber with a speaker, lights, a lever, and a food dispenser.\" width=\"649\" height=\"255\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. (a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for the systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. (credit a: modification of work by \"Silly rabbit\"\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSkinner believed that we learn best when our actions are reinforced. For example, a child who cleans his room and is reinforced (rewarded) with a big hug and words of praise is more likely to clean it again than a child whose deed goes unnoticed. Skinner believed that almost anything could be reinforcing. A reinforcer is anything following a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again. It can be something intrinsically rewarding (called intrinsic or primary reinforcers), such as food or praise, or it can be something that is rewarding because it can be exchanged for what one really wants (such as receiving money and using it buy a cookie). Such reinforcers are referred to as secondary reinforcers.\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch the following clip to learn more about operant conditioning and to watch an interview with Skinner as he talks about conditioning pigeons.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793456&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=I_ctJqjlrHA&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-e04ubcn5-I_ctJqjlrHA\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning<\/h3>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" colspan=\"3\"><strong>Table 1. Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>Classical Conditioning<\/td>\r\n<td>Operant Conditioning<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Conditioning approach<\/td>\r\n<td>An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation).<\/td>\r\n<td>The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stimulus timing<\/td>\r\n<td>The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.<\/td>\r\n<td>The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4418\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16520\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16521\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Social Cognitive (Learning) Theory: Observational Learning<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3028\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/31015929\/original-7.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3028 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/31015929\/original-7-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"Man playing chess while children gather around to learn.\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 4. <\/strong>Children observing a social model (an experienced chess player) to learn the rules and strategies of the game of chess. [Image: David R. Tribble, https:\/\/goo.gl\/nWsgxI, CC BY-SA 3.0, https:\/\/goo.gl\/uhHola][\/caption]<b>Social Cognitive Theory<\/b>\u00a0(SCT), originally known as the\u00a0Social Learning Theory\u00a0(SLT), began in the 1960s through research done by Albert Bandura. The theory proposes that\u00a0learning\u00a0occurs in a\u00a0social\u00a0context. It takes into consideration the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and their own behavior.[footnote]Behavioral Change Models. The Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http:\/\/sphweb.bumc.bu.edu\/otlt\/MPH-Modules\/SB\/BehavioralChangeTheories\/BehavioralChangeTheories5.html.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nNot all forms of learning are accounted for entirely by classical and operant conditioning. Imagine a child walking up to a group of children playing a game on the playground. The game looks fun, but it is new and unfamiliar. Rather than joining the game immediately, the child opts to sit back and watch the other children play a round or two. Observing the others, the child takes note of the ways in which they behave while playing the game. By watching the behavior of the other kids, the child can figure out the rules of the game and even some strategies for doing well at the game. This is called\u00a0observational learning.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Observational learning is a component of Albert Bandura\u2019s\u00a0Social Learning Theory\u00a0(Bandura, 1977), which posits that individuals can learn novel responses via observation of key others\u2019 behaviors. Observational learning does not necessarily require reinforcement, but instead hinges on the presence of others, referred to as\u00a0social models. Social models are normally of higher status or authority compared to the observer, examples of which include parents, teachers, and police officers. In the example above, the children who already know how to play the game could be thought of as being authorities\u2014and are therefore social models\u2014even though they are the same age as the observer. By observing how the social models behave, an individual is able to learn how to act in a certain situation. Other examples of observational learning might include a child learning to place her napkin in her lap by watching her parents at the dinner table, or a customer learning where to find the ketchup and mustard after observing other customers at a hot dog stand.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Bandura theorizes that the observational learning process consists of four parts. The first is\u00a0<em>attention<\/em>\u2014one must pay attention to what they are observing in order to learn. The second part is\u00a0<em>retention<\/em>: to learn one must be able to retain the behavior they are observing in memory. The third part of observational learning,\u00a0<em>initiation<\/em>, acknowledges that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior. Lastly, the observer must possess the\u00a0<em>motivation<\/em>\u00a0to engage in observational learning. In our vignette, the child must want to learn how to play the game in order to properly engage in observational learning.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">In this experiment, Bandura (Bandura, Ross, &amp; Ross, 1961) had children individually observe an adult social model interact with a clown doll (Bobo). For one group of children, the adult interacted aggressively with Bobo: punching it, kicking it, throwing it, and even hitting it in the face with a toy mallet. Another group of children watched the adult interact with other toys, displaying no aggression toward Bobo. In both instances, the adult left and the children were allowed to interact with Bobo on their own. Bandura found that children exposed to the aggressive social model were significantly more likely to behave aggressively toward Bobo, hitting and kicking him, compared to those exposed to the non-aggressive model. The researchers concluded that the children in the aggressive group used their observations of the adult social model\u2019s behavior to determine that aggressive behavior toward Bobo was acceptable.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">While reinforcement was not required to elicit the children\u2019s behavior in Bandura\u2019s first experiment, it is important to acknowledge that consequences do play a role within observational learning. A future adaptation of this study (Bandura, Ross, &amp; Ross, 1963) demonstrated that children in the aggression group showed less aggressive behavior if they witnessed the adult model receive punishment for aggressing against Bobo. Bandura referred to this process as\u00a0vicarious reinforcement because the children did not experience the reinforcement or punishment directly yet were still influenced by observing it.<\/span>\r\n<h3>Do parents socialize children or do children socialize parents?<\/h3>\r\nBandura's (1986) findings suggest that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called <strong>reciprocal determinism<\/strong>. An example of this might be the interplay between parents and children. Parents not only influence their child's environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently to their first child than with their fourth.\u00a0Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along, they have very different expectations of\u00a0themselves and their child.\u00a0Our environment creates us and we create our environment.\u00a0Today there are numerous other social influences, from TV, games, the Internet, i-pads, phones, social media, influencers, advertisements, etc.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch<\/h3>\r\nWatch this clip to better understand Bandura's research on social learning.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935248&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=Eqxjc4IUDyY&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-9m791p4h-Eqxjc4IUDyY\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16522\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Exploring Cognition<\/h2>\r\n<h3><strong>The Cognitive Perspective: The Roots of Understanding<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nCognitive theories focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time.\u00a0The <strong>t<\/strong><b>heory of cognitive development<\/b>\u00a0is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence first developed by\u00a0Jean Piaget. It is primarily known as a\u00a0developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire it, construct it, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims that cognitive development is at the center of the human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. Let's learn more about Piaget's views about the nature of intelligence and then dive deeper into the stages that he identified as critical in the developmental process.\r\n<h3>Piaget:\u00a0Changes in thought with maturation<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_737\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"179\"]<img class=\"wp-image-737 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/15184703\/Jean_Piaget_in_Ann_Arbor-179x300.png\" alt=\"Jean Piaget standing, smiling, wearing a 3-piece suit and a beret.\" width=\"179\" height=\"300\" \/> <strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Jean Piaget.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nJean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists in development, inspired to explore children\u2019s ability to think and reason by watching his own children\u2019s development.\u00a0He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children's intelligence differs from that of adults. He became interested in this area when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their\u00a0wrong answers. He believed that children's intellectual skills change over time that that\u00a0maturation rather than training brings about that change.\u00a0Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.\r\n<h3>Making sense of the world<\/h3>\r\nPiaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium or a balance or cohesiveness in what we see and what we know. Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. When faced with something new, a child may either fit it into an existing framework (<strong>schema<\/strong>) and match it with something known (<strong>assimilation<\/strong>) such as calling all animals with four legs \"doggies\" because he or she knows the word doggie, or expand the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation (<strong>accommodation<\/strong>) by learning a new word to more accurately name the animal. This is the underlying dynamic in our own cognition. Even as adults we continue to try and make sense of new situations by determining whether they fit into our old way of thinking or whether we need to modify our thoughts.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16523\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16524\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Stages of Cognitive Development<\/h3>\r\nLike Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolded in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.\r\n<table summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 73.5px;\">Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Stage<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Description<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Developmental issues<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">0\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Sensorimotor<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Object permanence\r\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">2\u20137<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Preoperational<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Use words and images to represent things but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Pretend play\r\nEgocentrism\r\nLanguage development<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Concrete operational<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Understand concrete events and logical analogies; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Conservation\r\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">11\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Formal operational<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Utilize abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Abstract logic\r\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe first stage is the <strong>sensorimotor<\/strong> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <strong>object permanence<\/strong>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.\r\n\r\nIn Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.\r\n\r\nPiaget\u2019s second stage is the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em>operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em>pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.\r\n\r\nDuring this stage, we also expect children to display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point\u00a0during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory-of-mind<\/strong> (TOM).\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nPiaget\u2019s third stage is the <strong>concrete operational stage<\/strong>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nChildren in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <strong>reversibility<\/strong>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">formal operational stage<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions.<\/span>\u00a0In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Jt3-PIC2nCs[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section>\r\n<h3>Criticisms of Piaget\u2019s Theory<\/h3>\r\nAs with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).\u00a0Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages, and Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.\r\n\r\nAccording to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent (or adult) in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues or integrate systems of thought.\r\n\r\nIt seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch it<\/h3>\r\nRobert Kegan explains the constructive developmental theory, which is based on, and an extension of, Piaget's theory of cognitive development. According to Kegan, development continues into adulthood as we are able to more deeply understand ourselves and the world.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935249&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=BoasM4cCHBc&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-za96v73w-BoasM4cCHBc\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16525\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Information-Processing Approaches to Development<\/h3>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Information-processing approaches<\/strong> have become an important alternative to Piagetian approaches.\u00a0The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. As a model, it assumes that even complex behavior such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps, and as a person develops strategies for processing information, they can learn more complex information.\u00a0<\/span>This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment.\r\n\r\nThe most common information-processing model is applied to an understanding of memory and the way that information is encoded, stored, and then retrieved from the brain (Atkinson &amp; Shiffrin, 1968), but information processing approaches also apply to cognitive processing in general. In one study, Stephanie Thornton assessed how children solved the problem of building a small bridge out of playing blocks to cross a small \"river.\" A single block was not wide enough to reach across the river, so the bridge could only be built by having two of the blocks meet in the middle, then by using extra blocks on the top of the sides of the bridge to serve as counterweights to hold the bridge upright. This task was relatively easy for older children (7 and 9 years old), but significantly harder for 5-year-olds (in the study, only one 5-year-old eventually completed the task by using trial and error).[footnote]Thorton, S. (1999). Creating conditions for cognitive change: The interaction between task structures and specific strategies. <em>Child Development<\/em>, 70, 588-603.[\/footnote] This supports the idea that cognitive development is specific to the individual.\r\n\r\nPsychologists who use information processing approaches examine how children tackle tasks such as the ones described above, whether it be through trial and error, building upon previous life experiences, or generalizing insights from external sources.[footnote]Chen, Zhe and Robert Siegler (2013). Young children\u2019s analogical problem solving: Gaining insights from video displays. <em>Journal of Experimental Child Psychology<\/em>. Retrieved from http:\/\/siegler.tc.columbia.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/Chen-Sieg13.pdf.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/section><section><\/section><section><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind\u2019s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development, in contrast with cognitive-developmental theorists such as Piaget who thought development occurred in stages.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Developmental psychologists who adopt the information-processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational changes in basic components of a child\u2019s mind.\u00a0At the same time, they do not offer a complete explanation of behavior. For example, they have paid little attention to behavior such as creativity, in which the most profound ideas often are developed in a seemingly not logical, nonlinear manner. Moreover, they do not take into account the social context in which development takes place.<\/section>\r\n<h4>Neo-Piagetian Theories<\/h4>\r\n<section><section>\r\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Some of the information processing approaches that build upon Piaget\u2018s research are known as neo-Piagetian theories. In contrast to Piaget\u2018s original work, which identified cognition as a single system of increasingly sophisticated general cognitive abilities, neo-Piagetian theories view cognition as a made up of different types of individual skills. Using the same terminology as information processing approaches, neo-Piagetian theories advance the idea that cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others. Consider for example, our reading abilities and all the skills that are needed to recall stories. These abilities and skills may progress sooner than the abstract computational abilities used in algebra or trigonometry. Also, neo-Piagetian theorists believe that experience plays a greater role in furthering cognitive development than traditional Piagetian approaches claim.\u00a0Neo-Piagetians also adopted principles from other theories, such as the social-cognitive theory that allowed them to consider how culture and interactions with others influenced cognitive development.[footnote]Yan, Z., &amp; Fischer, K. W. (2002). Always under construction: Dynamic variations in adult cognitive development. Human Development, 45, 141\u2013160. LeFevre, J.-A. (2016). Numerical cognition: Adding it up. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology\/Revue canadienne de psychologie exp\u00e9rimentale, 70(1), 3-11. Loewen, Susan. (2006). Exceptional intellectual performance: A neo-Piagetian perspective. High Ability Studies - HIGH ABIL STUD. 17.[\/footnote][footnote]Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson[\/footnote]<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section>\r\n<h3>Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches<\/h3>\r\nThe scientific interface between cognitive neuroscience and human development has evoked considerable interest in recent years, as technological advances make it possible to map in detail the changes in brain structure that take place during development. These approaches look at cognitive development at the level of brain processes. <b>Cognitive neuroscience<\/b>\u00a0is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the\u00a0biological\u00a0processes and aspects that underlie\u00a0cognition,\u00a0with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in\u00a0mental processes.\r\n\r\nLike other cognitive perspectives, cognitive neuroscience approaches consider internal, mental processes, but they focus specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem-solving, and other cognitive behavior. Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activities. For example, using sophisticated brain scanning techniques, cognitive neuroscientists have demonstrated that thinking about the meaning of a word activates different areas of the brain than thinking about how the word sounds when spoken.\r\n\r\nAlso, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of\u00a0developmental cognitive neuroscience. It examines how the mind changes as children grow up, interrelations between that and how the brain is changing, and environmental and biological influences on the developing mind and brain. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences.[footnote]Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16526\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16527\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]accommodation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]assimilation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]behavioral perspective:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]classical conditioning:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]cognitive neuroscience:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]cognitive perspective:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an approach that focuses on the process that allows people to know, understand, and think about the world[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]concrete operational stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the stage in which children can think logically about real (concrete) events, have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies, lasts from about 7 to 11 years old[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]conservation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added, usually develops during the concrete operational stage[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]egocentrism:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the child is not able to take the perspective of others, typically observed during the preoperational stage[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]formal operational stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory and lasts from about age 11 to adulthood. Children in the formal operational stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]information-processing approach:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an alternative to Piagetian approaches, a model that seeks to identify the ways individual take in, use, and store information[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]law of effect:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]object permanence:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the understanding that even if something is out of sight it still exists, develops between 5 and 8 months old[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]operant conditioning:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]Piaget's theory of cognitive development:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]preoperational stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the stage in which children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play, lasts approximately 2 to 7 years old[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]reciprocal determinism:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]reversibility:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition, typically observed during the concrete operational stage[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]schemas:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an existing framework for an object or concept[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sensorimotor stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the stage in which children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior, lasts from birth to about 2 years old[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]social-cognitive learning theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]theory-of-mind (TOM):[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]explains how children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own, develops during the preoperational stage[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>","rendered":"<h2>What you&#8217;ll learn to do: explain key principles of behaviorism and cognitive psychology<\/h2>\n<h2><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-3585\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/19192515\/Watching.jpg\" alt=\"Two children shown from behind sitting on a pathway overlooking a town\" width=\"561\" height=\"422\" \/><\/h2>\n<p>Is all behavior learned from the environment? Should psychology, as science, focus on\u00a0observable behavior\u2014the result of stimulus-response, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion? Is there little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals? These are types of questions considered by behaviorists, which we&#8217;ll learn more about in this section. We&#8217;ll also consider cognitive theories, which examine the construction of\u00a0thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of classical conditioning<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of operant conditioning<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0social learning theory<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0Piaget&#8217;s theory of cognitive development<\/li>\n<li>Describe information processing approaches to cognitive development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Exploring Behavior<\/h2>\n<h3>The Behavioral Perspective: A Focus on Observable Behavior<\/h3>\n<p>The <strong>behavioral perspective<\/strong> is the psychological approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment.\u00a0Behaviorism\u00a0is a\u00a0theory\u00a0of learning, and learning theories focus on how we respond to events or stimuli rather than emphasizing internal factors that motivate our actions.\u00a0These theories provide an explanation of how experience can change what we do.<\/p>\n<p>Behaviorism\u00a0emerged early in the 20th century and became a major force in American psychology. Championed by psychologists such as John B. Watson (1878\u20131958) and B. F. Skinner (1904\u20131990), behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849\u20131936) influenced early behaviorism in America. His work on conditioned learning, popularly referred to as classical conditioning, provided support for the notion that learning and behavior were controlled by events in the environment and could be explained with no reference to mind or consciousness (Fancher, 1987).<\/p>\n<h3>Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Classical conditioning<\/strong>\u00a0theory helps us to understand how our responses to one situation become attached to new situations. For example, a smell might remind us of a time when we were a kid. If you went to a new cafe with the same smell as your elementary cafeteria, it might evoke the feelings you had when you were in school. Or a song on the radio might remind you of a memorable evening you spent with your first true love. Or, if you hear your entire name (Isaiah Wilmington Brewer, for instance) called as you walk across the stage to get your diploma and it makes you tense because it reminds you of how your father used to use your full name when he was mad at you, then you&#8217;ve been classically conditioned.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_568\" style=\"width: 150px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18053749\/Pavlov.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-568\" class=\"wp-image-568 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18053749\/Pavlov.png\" alt=\"Photo of Ivan Pavlov in his older years, with a white beard, wearing a suit and tie.\" width=\"140\" height=\"198\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-568\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Ivan Pavlov<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Classical conditioning explains how we develop many of our emotional responses to people or events or our &#8220;gut level&#8221; reactions to situations. New situations may bring about an old response because the two have become connected. Attachments form in this way. Addictions are affected by classical conditioning, as anyone who&#8217;s tried to quit smoking can tell you. When you try to quit, everything that was associated with smoking makes you crave a cigarette.<\/p>\n<h3>Pavlov and Classical Conditioning<\/h3>\n<p>Ivan Pavlov\u00a0(1849\u20131936)\u00a0was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. &#8220;This,&#8221; he thought, &#8220;is not natural!&#8221; One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when the food hit their palate, but <em>before<\/em> the food comes? Of course, what happened is that the dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The keyword here is &#8220;learned.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>A learned response is called a &#8220;conditioned&#8221; response. Pavlov began to experiment with this &#8220;psychic&#8221; reflex. He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus. The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov&#8217;s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure06_02_Classical\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\n<div style=\"width: 763px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/0a68ead5badfa5d1dd5c6f501ed8f264ca3dacaf\/CNX_Psych_06_02_Classical.jpg\" alt=\"Two illustrations are labeled \u201cbefore conditioning\u201d and show a dog salivating over a dish of food, and a dog not salivating while a bell is rung. An illustration labeled \u201cduring conditioning\u201d shows a dog salivating over a bowl of food while a bell is rung. An illustration labeled \u201cafter conditioning\u201d shows a dog salivating while a bell is rung.\" width=\"753\" height=\"564\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.<\/p>\n<\/div><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<div>\n<p>View the following video\u00a0to learn more about Pavlov and his dogs:<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793437&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hhqumfpxuzI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-cjcaec3z-hhqumfpxuzI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Watson and Behaviorism<\/h3>\n<p>Let&#8217;s think about how classical conditioning is used on people, and not just with dogs. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.\u00a0Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on\u00a0Pavlov\u2019s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology.\u00a0He established the psychological school of\u00a0behaviorism, after doing research on\u00a0animal behavior. This school was extremely influential in the middle of the 20th century when\u00a0B.F. Skinner\u00a0developed it further.<\/p>\n<p>Watson believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public. He believed that parents could be taught to help shape their children&#8217;s behavior and tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18-month-old boy named &#8220;Little Albert.&#8221; Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert&#8217;s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced.<\/p>\n<p>Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.\u00a0Parenting advice was not the legacy Watson left us, however; where he really made his impact was in advertising. After Watson left academia, he went into the world of business and showed companies how to tie something that brings about a natural positive feeling to their products to enhance sales. Thus the union of sex and advertising!<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning: Little Albert<\/h3>\n<p>View scenes from John Watson\u2019s experiment in which Little Albert was conditioned to respond in fear to furry objects.\u00a0As you watch the video, look closely at Little Albert\u2019s reactions and the manner in which Watson and Rayner present the stimuli before and after conditioning.\u00a0In the experiment with Little Albert, check to see if you can identify the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses: identify the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and, after conditioning, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935244&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=FMnhyGozLyE&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-6k9ha5is-FMnhyGozLyE\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16519\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16519&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16519\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Operant Conditioning<\/h3>\n<p>Now we turn to the second type of associative learning, operant conditioning. In <strong>operant conditioning<\/strong>, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence (Table 1). A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future. For example, Spirit, a dolphin at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, does a flip in the air when her trainer blows a whistle. The consequence is that she gets a fish.<\/p>\n<p>Psychologist B. F. Skinner saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn\u2019t account for new behaviors such as riding a bike. He proposed a theory about how such behaviors come about. Skinner believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments. His idea that learning is the result of consequences is based on the <strong>law of effect<\/strong>, which was first proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike. According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Essentially, if an organism does something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again. If an organism does something that does not bring about a desired result, the organism is less likely to do it again. An example of the law of effect is in employment. One of the reasons (and often the main reason) we show up for work is because we get paid to do so. If we stop getting paid, we will likely stop showing up\u2014even if we love our job.<\/p>\n<p>Working with Thorndike\u2019s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938). He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber, which has come to be known as a \u201cSkinner box\u201d (Figure 1). A Skinner box contains a lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated with certain behaviors. A recorder counts the number of responses made by the animal.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 659px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224804\/CNX_Psych_06_03_Skinnerbox_n.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows B.F. Skinner. An illustration shows a rat in a Skinner box: a chamber with a speaker, lights, a lever, and a food dispenser.\" width=\"649\" height=\"255\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. (a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for the systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. (credit a: modification of work by &#8220;Silly rabbit&#8221;\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Skinner believed that we learn best when our actions are reinforced. For example, a child who cleans his room and is reinforced (rewarded) with a big hug and words of praise is more likely to clean it again than a child whose deed goes unnoticed. Skinner believed that almost anything could be reinforcing. A reinforcer is anything following a behavior that makes it more likely to occur again. It can be something intrinsically rewarding (called intrinsic or primary reinforcers), such as food or praise, or it can be something that is rewarding because it can be exchanged for what one really wants (such as receiving money and using it buy a cookie). Such reinforcers are referred to as secondary reinforcers.<\/p>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch the following clip to learn more about operant conditioning and to watch an interview with Skinner as he talks about conditioning pigeons.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793456&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=I_ctJqjlrHA&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-e04ubcn5-I_ctJqjlrHA\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning<\/h3>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: center;\" colspan=\"3\"><strong>Table 1. Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared\u00a0<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Classical Conditioning<\/td>\n<td>Operant Conditioning<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Conditioning approach<\/td>\n<td>An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation).<\/td>\n<td>The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stimulus timing<\/td>\n<td>The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.<\/td>\n<td>The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4418\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4418&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4418\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16520\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16520&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16520\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16521\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16521&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16521\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Social Cognitive (Learning) Theory: Observational Learning<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_3028\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/31015929\/original-7.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3028\" class=\"wp-image-3028 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/31015929\/original-7-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"Man playing chess while children gather around to learn.\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3028\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4. <\/strong>Children observing a social model (an experienced chess player) to learn the rules and strategies of the game of chess. [Image: David R. Tribble, https:\/\/goo.gl\/nWsgxI, CC BY-SA 3.0, https:\/\/goo.gl\/uhHola]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><b>Social Cognitive Theory<\/b>\u00a0(SCT), originally known as the\u00a0Social Learning Theory\u00a0(SLT), began in the 1960s through research done by Albert Bandura. The theory proposes that\u00a0learning\u00a0occurs in a\u00a0social\u00a0context. It takes into consideration the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and their own behavior.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Behavioral Change Models. The Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http:\/\/sphweb.bumc.bu.edu\/otlt\/MPH-Modules\/SB\/BehavioralChangeTheories\/BehavioralChangeTheories5.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-1186-1\" href=\"#footnote-1186-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Not all forms of learning are accounted for entirely by classical and operant conditioning. Imagine a child walking up to a group of children playing a game on the playground. The game looks fun, but it is new and unfamiliar. Rather than joining the game immediately, the child opts to sit back and watch the other children play a round or two. Observing the others, the child takes note of the ways in which they behave while playing the game. By watching the behavior of the other kids, the child can figure out the rules of the game and even some strategies for doing well at the game. This is called\u00a0observational learning.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Observational learning is a component of Albert Bandura\u2019s\u00a0Social Learning Theory\u00a0(Bandura, 1977), which posits that individuals can learn novel responses via observation of key others\u2019 behaviors. Observational learning does not necessarily require reinforcement, but instead hinges on the presence of others, referred to as\u00a0social models. Social models are normally of higher status or authority compared to the observer, examples of which include parents, teachers, and police officers. In the example above, the children who already know how to play the game could be thought of as being authorities\u2014and are therefore social models\u2014even though they are the same age as the observer. By observing how the social models behave, an individual is able to learn how to act in a certain situation. Other examples of observational learning might include a child learning to place her napkin in her lap by watching her parents at the dinner table, or a customer learning where to find the ketchup and mustard after observing other customers at a hot dog stand.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Bandura theorizes that the observational learning process consists of four parts. The first is\u00a0<em>attention<\/em>\u2014one must pay attention to what they are observing in order to learn. The second part is\u00a0<em>retention<\/em>: to learn one must be able to retain the behavior they are observing in memory. The third part of observational learning,\u00a0<em>initiation<\/em>, acknowledges that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior. Lastly, the observer must possess the\u00a0<em>motivation<\/em>\u00a0to engage in observational learning. In our vignette, the child must want to learn how to play the game in order to properly engage in observational learning.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">In this experiment, Bandura (Bandura, Ross, &amp; Ross, 1961) had children individually observe an adult social model interact with a clown doll (Bobo). For one group of children, the adult interacted aggressively with Bobo: punching it, kicking it, throwing it, and even hitting it in the face with a toy mallet. Another group of children watched the adult interact with other toys, displaying no aggression toward Bobo. In both instances, the adult left and the children were allowed to interact with Bobo on their own. Bandura found that children exposed to the aggressive social model were significantly more likely to behave aggressively toward Bobo, hitting and kicking him, compared to those exposed to the non-aggressive model. The researchers concluded that the children in the aggressive group used their observations of the adult social model\u2019s behavior to determine that aggressive behavior toward Bobo was acceptable.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">While reinforcement was not required to elicit the children\u2019s behavior in Bandura\u2019s first experiment, it is important to acknowledge that consequences do play a role within observational learning. A future adaptation of this study (Bandura, Ross, &amp; Ross, 1963) demonstrated that children in the aggression group showed less aggressive behavior if they witnessed the adult model receive punishment for aggressing against Bobo. Bandura referred to this process as\u00a0vicarious reinforcement because the children did not experience the reinforcement or punishment directly yet were still influenced by observing it.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Do parents socialize children or do children socialize parents?<\/h3>\n<p>Bandura&#8217;s (1986) findings suggest that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. This concept is called <strong>reciprocal determinism<\/strong>. An example of this might be the interplay between parents and children. Parents not only influence their child&#8217;s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently to their first child than with their fourth.\u00a0Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along, they have very different expectations of\u00a0themselves and their child.\u00a0Our environment creates us and we create our environment.\u00a0Today there are numerous other social influences, from TV, games, the Internet, i-pads, phones, social media, influencers, advertisements, etc.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this clip to better understand Bandura&#8217;s research on social learning.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935248&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=Eqxjc4IUDyY&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-9m791p4h-Eqxjc4IUDyY\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16522\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16522&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16522\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Exploring Cognition<\/h2>\n<h3><strong>The Cognitive Perspective: The Roots of Understanding<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Cognitive theories focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time.\u00a0The <strong>t<\/strong><b>heory of cognitive development<\/b>\u00a0is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence first developed by\u00a0Jean Piaget. It is primarily known as a\u00a0developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire it, construct it, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims that cognitive development is at the center of the human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. Let&#8217;s learn more about Piaget&#8217;s views about the nature of intelligence and then dive deeper into the stages that he identified as critical in the developmental process.<\/p>\n<h3>Piaget:\u00a0Changes in thought with maturation<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_737\" style=\"width: 189px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-737\" class=\"wp-image-737 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/15184703\/Jean_Piaget_in_Ann_Arbor-179x300.png\" alt=\"Jean Piaget standing, smiling, wearing a 3-piece suit and a beret.\" width=\"179\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-737\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Jean Piaget.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists in development, inspired to explore children\u2019s ability to think and reason by watching his own children\u2019s development.\u00a0He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children&#8217;s intelligence differs from that of adults. He became interested in this area when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their\u00a0wrong answers. He believed that children&#8217;s intellectual skills change over time that that\u00a0maturation rather than training brings about that change.\u00a0Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.<\/p>\n<h3>Making sense of the world<\/h3>\n<p>Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium or a balance or cohesiveness in what we see and what we know. Children have much more of a challenge in maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words, new objects, etc. When faced with something new, a child may either fit it into an existing framework (<strong>schema<\/strong>) and match it with something known (<strong>assimilation<\/strong>) such as calling all animals with four legs &#8220;doggies&#8221; because he or she knows the word doggie, or expand the framework of knowledge to accommodate the new situation (<strong>accommodation<\/strong>) by learning a new word to more accurately name the animal. This is the underlying dynamic in our own cognition. Even as adults we continue to try and make sense of new situations by determining whether they fit into our old way of thinking or whether we need to modify our thoughts.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16523\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16523&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16523\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16524\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16524&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16524\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Stages of Cognitive Development<\/h3>\n<p>Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolded in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 73.5px;\">Age (years)<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Stage<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Description<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Developmental issues<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">0\u20132<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Sensorimotor<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Object permanence<br \/>\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">2\u20137<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Preoperational<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Use words and images to represent things but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Pretend play<br \/>\nEgocentrism<br \/>\nLanguage development<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">7\u201311<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Concrete operational<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Understand concrete events and logical analogies; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Conservation<br \/>\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 73.5px;\">11\u2013<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 120.5px;\">Formal operational<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 386.5px;\">Utilize abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 193.5px;\">Abstract logic<br \/>\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The first stage is the <strong>sensorimotor<\/strong> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <strong>object permanence<\/strong>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.<\/p>\n<p>In Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.<\/p>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s second stage is the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em>operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em>pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<\/p>\n<p>During this stage, we also expect children to display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point\u00a0during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory-of-mind<\/strong> (TOM).<\/p>\n<div>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s third stage is the <strong>concrete operational stage<\/strong>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <strong>reversibility<\/strong>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1em;\">formal operational stage<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions.<\/span>\u00a0In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Piaget&#39;s stages of cognitive development | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Jt3-PIC2nCs?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section>\n<h3>Criticisms of Piaget\u2019s Theory<\/h3>\n<p>As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).\u00a0Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages, and Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances.<\/p>\n<p>According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent (or adult) in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues or integrate systems of thought.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch it<\/h3>\n<p>Robert Kegan explains the constructive developmental theory, which is based on, and an extension of, Piaget&#8217;s theory of cognitive development. According to Kegan, development continues into adulthood as we are able to more deeply understand ourselves and the world.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935249&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=BoasM4cCHBc&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-za96v73w-BoasM4cCHBc\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16525\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16525&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16525\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Information-Processing Approaches to Development<\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><strong>Information-processing approaches<\/strong> have become an important alternative to Piagetian approaches.\u00a0The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. As a model, it assumes that even complex behavior such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual, specific steps, and as a person develops strategies for processing information, they can learn more complex information.\u00a0<\/span>This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment.<\/p>\n<p>The most common information-processing model is applied to an understanding of memory and the way that information is encoded, stored, and then retrieved from the brain (Atkinson &amp; Shiffrin, 1968), but information processing approaches also apply to cognitive processing in general. In one study, Stephanie Thornton assessed how children solved the problem of building a small bridge out of playing blocks to cross a small &#8220;river.&#8221; A single block was not wide enough to reach across the river, so the bridge could only be built by having two of the blocks meet in the middle, then by using extra blocks on the top of the sides of the bridge to serve as counterweights to hold the bridge upright. This task was relatively easy for older children (7 and 9 years old), but significantly harder for 5-year-olds (in the study, only one 5-year-old eventually completed the task by using trial and error).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thorton, S. (1999). Creating conditions for cognitive change: The interaction between task structures and specific strategies. Child Development, 70, 588-603.\" id=\"return-footnote-1186-2\" href=\"#footnote-1186-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> This supports the idea that cognitive development is specific to the individual.<\/p>\n<p>Psychologists who use information processing approaches examine how children tackle tasks such as the ones described above, whether it be through trial and error, building upon previous life experiences, or generalizing insights from external sources.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Chen, Zhe and Robert Siegler (2013). Young children\u2019s analogical problem solving: Gaining insights from video displays. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. Retrieved from http:\/\/siegler.tc.columbia.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/Chen-Sieg13.pdf.\" id=\"return-footnote-1186-3\" href=\"#footnote-1186-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<section><span style=\"color: #333333;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind\u2019s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development, in contrast with cognitive-developmental theorists such as Piaget who thought development occurred in stages.\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Developmental psychologists who adopt the information-processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational changes in basic components of a child\u2019s mind.\u00a0At the same time, they do not offer a complete explanation of behavior. For example, they have paid little attention to behavior such as creativity, in which the most profound ideas often are developed in a seemingly not logical, nonlinear manner. Moreover, they do not take into account the social context in which development takes place.<\/section>\n<h4>Neo-Piagetian Theories<\/h4>\n<section>\n<section>\n<div><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Some of the information processing approaches that build upon Piaget\u2018s research are known as neo-Piagetian theories. In contrast to Piaget\u2018s original work, which identified cognition as a single system of increasingly sophisticated general cognitive abilities, neo-Piagetian theories view cognition as a made up of different types of individual skills. Using the same terminology as information processing approaches, neo-Piagetian theories advance the idea that cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others. Consider for example, our reading abilities and all the skills that are needed to recall stories. These abilities and skills may progress sooner than the abstract computational abilities used in algebra or trigonometry. Also, neo-Piagetian theorists believe that experience plays a greater role in furthering cognitive development than traditional Piagetian approaches claim.\u00a0Neo-Piagetians also adopted principles from other theories, such as the social-cognitive theory that allowed them to consider how culture and interactions with others influenced cognitive development.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Yan, Z., &amp; Fischer, K. W. (2002). Always under construction: Dynamic variations in adult cognitive development. Human Development, 45, 141\u2013160. LeFevre, J.-A. (2016). Numerical cognition: Adding it up. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology\/Revue canadienne de psychologie exp\u00e9rimentale, 70(1), 3-11. Loewen, Susan. (2006). Exceptional intellectual performance: A neo-Piagetian perspective. High Ability Studies - HIGH ABIL STUD. 17.\" id=\"return-footnote-1186-4\" href=\"#footnote-1186-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson\" id=\"return-footnote-1186-5\" href=\"#footnote-1186-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h3>Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches<\/h3>\n<p>The scientific interface between cognitive neuroscience and human development has evoked considerable interest in recent years, as technological advances make it possible to map in detail the changes in brain structure that take place during development. These approaches look at cognitive development at the level of brain processes. <b>Cognitive neuroscience<\/b>\u00a0is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the\u00a0biological\u00a0processes and aspects that underlie\u00a0cognition,\u00a0with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in\u00a0mental processes.<\/p>\n<p>Like other cognitive perspectives, cognitive neuroscience approaches consider internal, mental processes, but they focus specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem-solving, and other cognitive behavior. Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activities. For example, using sophisticated brain scanning techniques, cognitive neuroscientists have demonstrated that thinking about the meaning of a word activates different areas of the brain than thinking about how the word sounds when spoken.<\/p>\n<p>Also, cognitive abilities based on brain development are studied and examined under the subfield of\u00a0developmental cognitive neuroscience. It examines how the mind changes as children grow up, interrelations between that and how the brain is changing, and environmental and biological influences on the developing mind and brain. This shows brain development over time, analyzing differences and concocting possible reasons for those differences.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson\" id=\"return-footnote-1186-6\" href=\"#footnote-1186-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16526\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16526&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16526\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16527\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16527&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16527\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div><\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>accommodation:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term developed by psychologist Jean Piaget to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas<\/dd>\n<dt>assimilation:<\/dt>\n<dd>a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge<\/dd>\n<dt>behavioral perspective:<\/dt>\n<dd>the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment<\/dd>\n<dt>classical conditioning:<\/dt>\n<dd>a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response<\/dd>\n<dt>cognitive neuroscience:<\/dt>\n<dd>the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes<\/dd>\n<dt>cognitive perspective:<\/dt>\n<dd>an approach that focuses on the process that allows people to know, understand, and think about the world<\/dd>\n<dt>concrete operational stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the stage in which children can think logically about real (concrete) events, have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies, lasts from about 7 to 11 years old<\/dd>\n<dt>conservation:<\/dt>\n<dd>the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added, usually develops during the concrete operational stage<\/dd>\n<dt>egocentrism:<\/dt>\n<dd>the child is not able to take the perspective of others, typically observed during the preoperational stage<\/dd>\n<dt>formal operational stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory and lasts from about age 11 to adulthood. Children in the formal operational stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations<\/dd>\n<dt>information-processing approach:<\/dt>\n<dd>an alternative to Piagetian approaches, a model that seeks to identify the ways individual take in, use, and store information<\/dd>\n<dt>law of effect:<\/dt>\n<dd>behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged<\/dd>\n<dt>object permanence:<\/dt>\n<dd>the understanding that even if something is out of sight it still exists, develops between 5 and 8 months old<\/dd>\n<dt>operant conditioning:<\/dt>\n<dd>a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences<\/dd>\n<dt>Piaget&#8217;s theory of cognitive development:<\/dt>\n<dd>a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal<\/dd>\n<dt>preoperational stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the stage in which children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play, lasts approximately 2 to 7 years old<\/dd>\n<dt>reciprocal determinism:<\/dt>\n<dd>the interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us<\/dd>\n<dt>reversibility:<\/dt>\n<dd>objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition, typically observed during the concrete operational stage<\/dd>\n<dt>schemas:<\/dt>\n<dd>an existing framework for an object or concept<\/dd>\n<dt>sensorimotor stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the stage in which children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior, lasts from birth to about 2 years old<\/dd>\n<dt>social-cognitive learning theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model<\/dd>\n<dt>theory-of-mind (TOM):<\/dt>\n<dd>explains how children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own, develops during the preoperational stage<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1186\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Girl Boy Sitting. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: shuraki. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-105523\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-105523\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>History of Psychology section on the history of behaviorism. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: David B. Baker and Heather Sperry. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Noba Psychology. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/textbooks\/introduction-to-psychology-the-full-noba-collection\/modules\/history-of-psychology#vocabulary-behaviorism\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/textbooks\/introduction-to-psychology-the-full-noba-collection\/modules\/history-of-psychology#vocabulary-behaviorism<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Collection. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Paragraph on John B. Watson. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_B._Watson\">https:\/\/simple.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_B._Watson<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The History of Psychologyu2014Behaviorism and Humanism. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-behaviorism\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-behaviorism\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Operant Conditioning. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-operant-conditioning\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-operant-conditioning\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to Psychology. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Sections on Social Learning Theory: Observational Learning. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Mark E. Bouton. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: University of Vermont. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/conditioning-and-learning\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/conditioning-and-learning<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Conditioning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax . <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.48:lAYBvVZM@5\/History-of-Psychology\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.48:lAYBvVZM@5\/History-of-Psychology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48<\/li><li>Cognitive Development sections on Piaget. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Information Processing Theory. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_processing_theory\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_processing_theory<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Developmental cognitive neuroscience. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_cognitive_neuroscience\">https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_cognitive_neuroscience<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Theory of Cognitive Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_cognitive_neuroscience\">https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_cognitive_neuroscience<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Cognitive Neuroscience. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_neuroscience\">https:\/\/en.m.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_neuroscience<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: BullyingNewsVideos. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube license<\/li><li>Baby Albert Experiments. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jaap van der Steen. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=11&#038;v=FMnhyGozLyE\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=11&#038;v=FMnhyGozLyE<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube license<\/li><li>Operant conditioning. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: jenningh. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>The Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: PsychHub. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Eqxjc4IUDyY\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Eqxjc4IUDyY<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Piaget&#039;s stages of cognitive development | Processing the Environment | MCAT . <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Khan Academy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Jt3-PIC2nCs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Jt3-PIC2nCs<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>The Further Reaches of Adult Development - Robert Kegan. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: The RSA. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=BoasM4cCHBc\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=BoasM4cCHBc<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Jean Piaget image. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jean_Piaget#\/media\/File:Jean_Piaget_in_Ann_Arbor.png\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jean_Piaget#\/media\/File:Jean_Piaget_in_Ann_Arbor.png<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1186-1\">Behavioral Change Models. The Social Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from http:\/\/sphweb.bumc.bu.edu\/otlt\/MPH-Modules\/SB\/BehavioralChangeTheories\/BehavioralChangeTheories5.html. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1186-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1186-2\">Thorton, S. (1999). Creating conditions for cognitive change: The interaction between task structures and specific strategies. <em>Child Development<\/em>, 70, 588-603. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1186-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1186-3\">Chen, Zhe and Robert Siegler (2013). Young children\u2019s analogical problem solving: Gaining insights from video displays. <em>Journal of Experimental Child Psychology<\/em>. Retrieved from http:\/\/siegler.tc.columbia.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/Chen-Sieg13.pdf. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1186-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1186-4\">Yan, Z., &amp; Fischer, K. W. (2002). Always under construction: Dynamic variations in adult cognitive development. Human Development, 45, 141\u2013160. LeFevre, J.-A. (2016). Numerical cognition: Adding it up. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology\/Revue canadienne de psychologie exp\u00e9rimentale, 70(1), 3-11. Loewen, Susan. (2006). Exceptional intellectual performance: A neo-Piagetian perspective. High Ability Studies - HIGH ABIL STUD. 17. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1186-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1186-5\">Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson <a href=\"#return-footnote-1186-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1186-6\">Feldman, Robert (2018) Discovering the Life Span, 4th Edition. Pearson <a href=\"#return-footnote-1186-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Theories\",\"author\":\"Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Girl Boy Sitting\",\"author\":\"shuraki\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-105523\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov\",\"author\":\"BullyingNewsVideos\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube license\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Baby Albert Experiments\",\"author\":\"Jaap van der Steen\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=11&v=FMnhyGozLyE\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube license\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"History of Psychology section on the history of behaviorism\",\"author\":\"David B. 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