{"id":1310,"date":"2018-12-18T22:12:11","date_gmt":"2018-12-18T22:12:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1310"},"modified":"2019-09-23T18:44:48","modified_gmt":"2019-09-23T18:44:48","slug":"emotional-and-social-development-in-adolescence","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/chapter\/emotional-and-social-development-in-adolescence\/","title":{"raw":"Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence","rendered":"Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you'll learn to do: describe adolescent identity development and social influences on development<\/h2>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/20210053\/fatigued-1822678.jpg\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-3702\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/20210053\/fatigued-1822678-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"2 people sitting together on the grass looking at their laptops\" width=\"519\" height=\"342\" \/><\/a>\r\n\r\nAdolescence is a period of personal and social identity formation, in which different roles, behaviors, and ideologies are explored. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them. Some key points related to social development during adolescence include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Adolescence is the period of life known for the formation of personal and social identity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Erik Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s main questions are \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities and identities at once.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and serotonin) influence the way in which adolescents experience emotions, typically making them more emotional and more sensitive to stress.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When adolescents have advanced cognitive development and maturity, they tend to resolve identity issues more easily than peers who are less cognitively developed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important; despite this, relationships with parents still play a significant role in identity formation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe changes in self-concept and\u00a0identity development during adolescence<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain Marcia's four identity statuses<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Examine changes in family relationships during adolescence<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe adolescent friendships and dating relationships as they apply to development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the role that aggression, anxiety, and depression play in adolescent development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Identity Formation<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Psychosocial Development<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Identity Development<\/h4>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4842\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"587\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4842\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/15200008\/young-students-sports-endurance-teens-fellow-740655-pxhere.com_.jpg\" alt=\"Young teenagers, most wearing school uniforms, smiling outside.\" width=\"587\" height=\"391\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Adolescents simultaneously struggle to fit in with their peers and to form their own unique identities.<span style=\"color: #ff6600;\"><br \/><\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIdentity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Kroger,_J._1996_pp._40-46_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years, adolescents are more open to 'trying on' different behaviors and appearances to discover who they are.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-Strasburger,_V.C._2014_pp._11-19_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>In an attempt to find their identity and discover who they are, adolescents are likely to cycle through a number of identities to find one that suits them best. Developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years) is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and social status.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-Kroger,_J._1996_pp._40-46_95-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as\u00a0identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self.<sup id=\"cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\r\n<h4>Self-Concept<\/h4>\r\nTwo main aspects of identity development are self-concept and self-esteem.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Strasburger,_V.C._2014_pp._11-19_96-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0The idea of <strong>self-concept<\/strong> is known as the ability of a person to have opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistently and with stability.<sup id=\"cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_99-0\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0Early in adolescence,\u00a0cognitive developments\u00a0result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children they defined themselves by physical traits whereas adolescents define themselves based on their values, thoughts, and opinions.<sup id=\"cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\r\n\r\nAdolescents can conceptualize multiple \"possible selves\" that they could become and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the\u00a0actual\u00a0self toward the\u00a0ideal\u00a0self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.<sup id=\"cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\r\n\r\nFurther distinctions in self-concept, called \"differentiation,\" occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves. Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence. Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the\u00a0personality traits\u00a0adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years,\u00a0but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.\r\n<h4>Self-Esteem<\/h4>\r\nAnother aspect of identity formation is\u00a0self-esteem. <strong>Self-esteem<\/strong> is defined as one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_99-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.<sup id=\"cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0\"Barometric self-esteem\" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends' approval or can't find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem.\r\n\r\nIn contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys.\r\n<h3>Identity Formation: Who am I?<\/h3>\r\nAdolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erik Erikson referred to life's fifth psychosocial task as one of <strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">identity versus role confusion\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">when <\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one's own identity.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial; color: #000000;\">In<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">dividuals are influenced by how they resolved all of the previous childhood psychosocial crises and this adolescent stage is a bridge between the past and the future, between childhood and adulthood. <\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s main questions are \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator o<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">f successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence).\u00a0<\/span>This crisis is resolved positively with <strong>identity achievement<\/strong> and the gain of fidelity (ability to be faithful) as a new virtue, when adolescents have reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture.<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">\u00a0S<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">ome adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop iden<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">tities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents\u2019 lives.<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16617\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16618\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nExpanding on Erikson's theory, Marcia (1966)[footnote]Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551\u2013558.[\/footnote]) described identify formation during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and occupations. <strong>Foreclosure<\/strong> occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options. <strong>Identity confusion\/diffusion<\/strong> occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities. <strong>Moratorium<\/strong> is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. As mentioned earlier, individuals who have explored different options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of <strong>identity achievement.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nDevelopmental psychologists have researched several different areas of identity development and some of the main areas include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Religious identity<\/strong>: The religious views of teens are often similar to those of their families (Kim-Spoon, Longo, &amp; McCullough, 2012) [footnote]Kim-Spoon, J., Longo, G.S., &amp; McCullough, M.E. (2012) Parent-adolescent relationship quality as a moderator for the influence of parents' religiousness on adolescents' religiousness and adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(12), 1576-1587.[\/footnote] Most teens may question specific customs, practices, or ideas in the faith of their parents, but few completely reject the religion of their families.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Political identity<\/strong>: An adolescent's political identity is also influenced by their parents\u2019 political\u00a0beliefs. A new trend in the 21st century is a decrease in party affiliation among adults. Many\u00a0adults do not align themselves with either the democratic or republican party and their teenage children reflect their parents' lack of party affiliation. Although adolescents do tend to be more liberal than their elders, especially on social issues (Taylor, 2014) [footnote]Taylor, P. (2014). The next America: Boomers, millennials, and the looming generational showdown. New York, NY: Public Affairs.[\/footnote], like other aspects of identity formation, adolescents' interest in politics is predicted by their parents' involvement and by current events (Stattin et al., 2017). [footnote]Stattin, H., Hussein, O., Ozdemir, M., &amp; Russo, S. (2017). Why do some adolescents encounter everyday events that increase their civil interest whereas others do not? Developmental Psychology, 53 (2), 306-318.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Vocational identity:<\/strong>\u00a0While adolescents in earlier generations envisioned themselves as working\u00a0in a particular job, and often worked as an apprentice or part-time in such occupations as teenagers, this is rarely the case today. Vocational identity takes longer to develop, as most of today\u2019s occupations require specific skills and knowledge that will require additional education or are acquired on the job itself. In addition, many of the jobs held by teens are not in occupations that most teens will seek as adults.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4696\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"277\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4696\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/12143255\/5387638645_10c3fa400a_o-526x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Identity spectrum showing a continuum between female and male for sex, another continuum for gender identity between woman and man, a continuum for gender expression, and another continuum for sexual orientation.\" width=\"277\" height=\"539\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. This identity spectrum shows the fluidity between sex, gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation.[\/caption]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Ethnic identity:\u00a0<\/strong>Ethnic identity refers to how people come to terms with who they are based on their ethnic or racial ancestry. According to the U.S. Census (2012) more than 40% of Americans under the age of 18\u00a0are from ethnic minorities. For many ethnic minority teens, discovering one\u2019s ethnic identity is\u00a0an important part of identity formation. Phinney (1989)[footnote]Phinney, J. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34\u201349.[\/footnote] proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored ethnic identity, ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Gender identity:<\/strong>\u00a0A person\u2019s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with his or her gender.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><strong>Sex\u00a0<\/strong>refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences.\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><span id=\"import-auto-id2021309\">Gender<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms,\u00a0roles, and relationships between groups of women and men.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Many adolescents use their analytic, hypothetical thinking to question traditional gender roles and expression. If their\u00a0genetically assigned sex does not line up with their gender identity, they may refer to themselves as transgender, non-binary, or gender-nonconforming. <\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Gender identity<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> refers to a person's self-perception as male, female, both, genderqueer, or neither.\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">C<\/strong><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">isgender\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">is an umbrella term used to describe\u00a0people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex, while <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">transgender\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">is a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex. <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Gender<\/strong><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> expression<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">, or how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions) can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fluidity and uncertainty regarding sex and gender are especially common during early adolescence, when hormones increase and fluctuate creating difficulty of self-acceptance and identity achievement (Reisner et al., 2016).[footnote]Reisner, S.L., Katz-Wise, S.L., Gordon, A.R., Corliss, H.L., &amp; Austin, S.B. (2016). Social epidemiology of depression and anxiety by gender identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59 (2), 203-208.[\/footnote] Gender identity, like vocational identity,\u00a0is becoming an increasingly prolonged task as attitudes and norms\u00a0regarding gender keep changing. The roles appropriate for males and females are evolving and some adolescents may foreclose on a gender identity as a way of dealing with this uncertainty by adopting more stereotypic male or female roles (Sinclair &amp; Carlsson, 2013) [footnote]Sinclair, S. &amp; Carlsson, R. (2013). What will I be when I grow up? The impact of gender identity threat on adolescents' occupational preferences. Journal of Adolescence, 36(3), 465-474.[\/footnote].\u00a0Those that identify as transgender or other face even bigger challenges.<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video takes a deeper look at Marcia's theory of identity development and relates\u00a0the four identity statuses to college students figuring out their major.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-JrZwmHU9xE\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16619\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Gender Identity and Transgender Individuals<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2368079\">Individuals who identify with the role that is different from their biological sex are called <span id=\"import-auto-id1873139\">transgender<\/span>. Approximately 1.4 million U.S. adults or .6 percent of the population are transgender according to a 2016 report.[footnote]Flores, A., J. Herman, G. Gates, and T. N.T. Brown. \"How many adults identify as transgender.\" The Williams Institute.\u00a0http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2864557\">Transgender individuals may choose to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity.\u00a0They may also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM). Not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies; many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender. This is typically done by adopting the dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to another gender. It is important to note that people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a different gender is not the same as identifying as trans.\u00a0Cross-dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, and it is not necessarily an expression against one\u2019s assigned gender (APA 2008).<\/p>\r\nAfter years of controversy over the treatment of sex and gender in the <em>American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders<\/em> (Drescher 2010), the most recent edition, DSM-5, responds to allegations that the term \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d is stigmatizing by replacing it with \u201c<strong>gender dysphoria<\/strong>.\u201d Gender identity disorder as a diagnostic category stigmatized the patient by implying there was something \u201cdisordered\u201d about them. Gender dysphoria, on the other hand, removes some of that stigma by taking the word \"disorder\" out while maintaining a category that will protect patient access to care, including hormone therapy and gender reassignment surgery. In the DSM-5, gender dysphoria is a condition of people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. For a person to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, there must be a marked difference between the individual\u2019s expressed\/experienced gender and the gender others would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six months. In children, the desire to be of the other gender must be present and verbalized (APA 2013).\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2317293\">Changing the clinical description may contribute to a larger acceptance of transgender people in society. A 2017 poll showed that 54 percent of Americans believe gender is determined by sex at birth and 32 percent say society <span style=\"color: #339966;\">h<\/span>as \"gone too far\" in accepting transgender people; views are sharply divided along political and religions lines.[footnote]Salam, M. \"For transgender Americans, the political gets even more personal\" (2018). The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\nStudies show that people who identify as transgender are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as nontransgender individuals; they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs 2010; Giovanniello 2013). Trans women of color are most likely be to victims of abuse. A practice called \"deadnaming\" by the American Civil Liberties Union, whereby trans people who are murdered are referred to by their birth name and gender, is a discriminatory tool that effectively erases a person's trans identity and also prevents investigations into their deaths and knowledge of their deaths.[footnote]Strangio, C. 2018. \"Deadly violence against transgender people.\" ACLU. https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise.[\/footnote] Organizations such as the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs and Global Action for Trans Equality work to prevent, respond to, and end all types of violence against transgender and homosexual individuals. These organizations hope that by educating the public about gender identity and empowering transgender individuals, this violence will end.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Social Development during Adolescence<\/h2>\r\n<h4>Parents<\/h4>\r\nIt appears that most teens do not experience adolescent <span style=\"color: #339966;\">\"<\/span>storm and stress<span style=\"color: #339966;\">\"<\/span> to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg &amp; Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These disputes occur because an adolescent's drive for independence and autonomy conflicts with the parent's supervision and control. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos &amp; Almeida, 1992).\r\n\r\nAs adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, &amp; Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, &amp; Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).\r\n\r\nAlthough peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent\u2013child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents\u2019 distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents\u2019 attempts to set rules and know their adolescents\u2019 friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents\u2019 willingness to disclose information to their parents. (Stattin &amp; Kerr, 2000)[footnote]Stattin, H., &amp; Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072\u20131085.[\/footnote] Psychological control, which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents\u2019 emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents\u2019 feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways is another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more problematic adolescent adjustment.[footnote]Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296\u20133319.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16620\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4 id=\"peers\">Peers<\/h4>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"586\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/690\/original.jpg\" alt=\"Two groups of teenage girls, most of whom are wearing head scarves, sitting and chatting on some steps.\" width=\"586\" height=\"329\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Crowds refer to different collections of people, like the \u201ctheater kids\u201d or the \u201cenvironmentalists.\u201d In a way, they are kind of like clothing brands that label the people associated with that crowd. [Image: Garry Knight][\/caption]As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults. Children\u2019s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents\u2019 notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings.\r\n\r\n<section><\/section><section><\/section><section><\/section><section><\/section><section><\/section><section class=\"content\">During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as being a function of <strong>homophily<\/strong> (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a \u201cbirds of a feather flock together\u201d way) and influence (adolescents who spend time together shape each other\u2019s behavior and attitudes). <strong>Peer pressure<\/strong> is usually depicted as peers pushing a teenager to do something that adults disapprove of, such as breaking laws or using drugs.\u00a0One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as <strong>deviant peer contagion <\/strong>(Dishion &amp; Tipsord, 2011)[footnote]Dishion, T. J., &amp; Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189\u2013214.[\/footnote], which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior. Although deviant peer contagion is more extreme, regular peer pressure is not always harmful.\u00a0Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or who have conflictual peer relationships.<\/section><strong>Crowds<\/strong> are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and <strong>cliques<\/strong> (which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions (Brown &amp; Larson, 2009)[footnote]Brown, B. B., &amp; Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner &amp; L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74\u2013103). New York, NY: Wiley.[\/footnote] These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents\u2019 social status and peers\u2019 perceptions of their values or behaviors.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning: Gender Roles<\/h3>\r\nIt is interesting to note that even in today's progressive social climate and with advances in gender equality, there are still considerable differences in the ways teenage boys and girls spend their time, as shown in 2019 research by the Pew Research Center. During the school year, teenage boys spend an average of 24 minutes a day helping around the house and 12 minutes preparing food, while teenage girls spend an average of 38 minutes a day helping around the house and 29 minutes preparing food. Both boys and girls spend more equal amounts of time on maintenance chores and lawn care. Girls also spend an average of 23 more minutes on grooming each day, which is perhaps explained by the fact that 35% of girls say they feel pressure to look good (compared with 23% of boys).[footnote]Livingston, Gretchen (February 2018). The way U.S. teens spend their time is changing, but differences between boys and girls persist. Pew Research Center.[\/footnote] Read the article <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/02\/20\/the-way-u-s-teens-spend-their-time-is-changing-but-differences-between-boys-and-girls-persist\/\">\"The Way U.S. Teens Spend Their Time is Changing, but Differences Between Boys and Girls Persist\"<\/a> to learn more.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4 id=\"romantic-relationships\">Romantic relationships<\/h4>\r\nAdolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, &amp; Konarski, 2000)[footnote]Connolly, J., Furman, W., &amp; Konarski, R. (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development, 71, 1395\u20131408.[\/footnote] Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman &amp; Shaffer, 2003)[footnote]Furman, W., &amp; Shaffer, L. (2003). The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development. In P. Florsheim (Ed.), Adolescent romantic relations and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications (pp. 3\u201322). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.[\/footnote] Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents\u2019 identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents\u2019 emotional and behavioral adjustment.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents\u2019 emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents\u2019 sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. <strong>Sexual orientation<\/strong> refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, &amp; Clary, 2009)[footnote]Russell, S. T., Clarke, T. J., &amp; Clary, J. (2009). Are teens \u201cpost-gay\u201d? Contemporary adolescents\u2019 sexual identity labels. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 884\u2013890.[\/footnote] Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.\r\n\r\nMany adolescents may choose to\u00a0come out\u00a0during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of\u00a0questioning\u00a0or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences.\u00a0A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively.\u00a0Coming to terms with and creating a positive LGBT identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or\u00a0gender identity\u00a0are surrounded by\u00a0heteronormative\u00a0peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.\u00a0Because of this, statistically the\u00a0suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.\r\n<h3 id=\"diversity\">Diversity<\/h3>\r\nAdolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals. Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in another country, and supports and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents\u2019 experiences in these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents\u2019 parents are expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making.\r\n\r\nEven within the same country, adolescents\u2019 gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. For example, early puberty (that occurs before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who are ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that non-minorities do not face.\r\n\r\nFinally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence. Current approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow a <em>differential susceptibility<\/em> model (Belsky &amp; Pluess, 2009)[footnote]Belsky, J., &amp; Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis-stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885\u2013908.[\/footnote] That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than others, but genetic variations also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental factors. For example, the association between the CHRM2 genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and delinquency) has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors (Dick et al., 2011)[footnote]Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Latendresse, S. J., Creemers, H. E., Lansford, J. E., \u2026 Huizink, A. C. (2011). CHRM2, parental monitoring, and adolescent externalizing behavior: Evidence for gene-environment interaction. Psychological Science, 22, 481\u2013489.[\/footnote] Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual differences play an important role in adolescent development.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16621\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Behavioral and Psychological Adjustment<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"266\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/original.jpg\"><img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/sm_original.jpg\" alt=\"Young teenager holding his fists out ready to punch the photographer.\" width=\"266\" height=\"266\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. Early antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put][\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"aggression-and-antisocial-behavior\">Aggression and Antisocial Behavior<\/h3>\r\nSeveral major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period. Patterson\u2019s (1982)[footnote]Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.[\/footnote] <em>early versus late starter model<\/em> of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents\u2019 own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in the environment make other options more appealing.\r\n\r\nSimilarly, Moffitt\u2019s (1993)[footnote]Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674\u2013701.[\/footnote] <em>life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model<\/em> distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a \u201cmaturity gap\u201d between adolescents\u2019 dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nExperiencing violence as an adolescent increases the odds of that adolescent later becoming an abusive adult, although it is not a given. Watch this video to learn more about the effects of abuse and perpetuated violence.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Psychology and MASS Shootings<\/h3>\r\nVirginia Tech, Columbine, Stoneman Douglas High School, Santa Fe High School, Sandy Hook, Aurora, Las Vegas, Orlando\u2014all sites of horrific and tragic mass shootings. Why are they so common? And what led the perpetrators to commit these acts of violence? Several possible factors may work together to create a fertile environment for mass murder in the United States. Most commonly suggested include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Higher accessibility and ownership of guns. The U.S. has the highest per-capita gun ownership in the world with 120.5 firearms per 100 people; the second highest is Yemen with 52.8 firearms per 100 people.[footnote]Healy, Melissa (August 24, 2015). \"Why the U.S. is No. 1 \u2013 in mass shootings\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 6, 2017.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mental illness[footnote]Grinberg, Emanuella (January 25, 2016). \"The real mental health issue behind gun violence\". CNN. Retrieved November 7, 2017.[\/footnote] and its treatment (or the lack thereof) with psychiatric drugs. This is controversial.[footnote]Campbell, Holly (December 2, 2015). \"Inside the mind of a mass murderer\". WANE-TV. Retrieved November 9, 2017.[\/footnote] Many of the mass shooters in the U.S. suffered from mental illness, but the estimated number of mental illness cases has not increased as significantly as the number of mass shootings.[footnote]Christensen, Jen (October 5, 2017). \"Why the US has the most mass shootings\". CNN. Retrieved November 6, 2017.[\/footnote] Under 5% of violent behaviors in the U.S. are committed by persons with mental health diagnoses.\u00a0A 2002 report by the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others, and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available.[footnote]Peters, Justin (December 19, 2013). \"Everything You Think You Know about Mass Murder Is Wrong\". Slate.[\/footnote] Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems.[footnote]Ferguson, Christopher J.; Coulson, Mark; Barnett, Jane (January 1, 2011). \"Psychological Profiles of School Shooters: Positive Directions and One Big Wrong Turn\". Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 11 (2): 141\u2013158. doi:10.1080\/15332586.2011.581523.[\/footnote] However, they note that attempting to \"profile\" school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The desire to seek revenge for a long history of being bullied at school. In recent years, citizens calling themselves \"targeted individual\" have cited adult bullying campaigns as a reason for their deadly violence.[footnote]Burgess, Ann Wolbert; Garbarino, Christina; Carlson, Mary I. (2006). \"Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide\". Victims and Offenders. 1 (1): 1\u201314. doi:10.1080\/15564880500498705.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The widespread chronic gap between people's expectations for themselves and their actual achievement, and individualistic culture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Desire for fame and notoriety. Also, mass shooters learn from one another through \"media contagion,\" that is, \"the mass media coverage of them and the proliferation of social media sites that tend to glorify the shooters and downplay the victims.\"<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The copycat phenomenon.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Failure of government background checks due to incomplete databases and\/or staff shortages<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nRead this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2019\/02\/10\/690372199\/school-shooters-whats-their-path-to-violence\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NPR article on school shooters<\/a> to learn more about common threads shared by <em>some<\/em> who commit mass violence.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 id=\"anxiety-and-depression\">Anxiety and Depression<\/h3>\r\nDevelopmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009) [footnote]Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.[\/footnote] Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) [footnote]American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.[\/footnote] Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%\u20135% in adults but 16% in adolescents.\u00a0Additionally, some adolescents sink into <strong>major depression<\/strong>, a deep sadness and hopelessness that disrupts all normal, regular activities. Causes include many factors such as genetics and early childhood experiences that predate adolescence, but puberty may push vulnerable children, especially girls into despair.\r\n\r\nDuring puberty, the rate of major depression more than doubles to an estimated 15%, affecting about one in five girls and one in ten boys. The gender difference occurs for many reasons, biological and cultural (Uddin et al., 2010)\u00a0[footnote]Uddin, M., Koenen, K.C., de los Santos, R., Bakshis, E., Aielle, A.E., &amp; Galea, S. (2010). Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27(7), 658-666.[\/footnote] Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because <strong>suicide<\/strong> is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Some adolescents experience<strong> suicidal ideation <\/strong>(distressing thoughts about killing oneself) which become most common at about age 15 (Berger, 2019)\u00a0[footnote]Berger, K.S. (2019). Invitation to the Lifespan (4th ed). Worth Publishers, NY.[\/footnote] and can lead to <strong>parasuicide<\/strong>, also called attempted suicide or failed suicide. Suicidal ideation and parasuicide should be taken seriously and serve as a warning that emotions may be overwhelming.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis short video emphasizes how suicide is a major health issue and concern for teenagers, and also how it is important for parents, caregivers, teachers, and friends to be open enough to talk about it.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935318&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=axoTuFd51Pk&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-fj25pejz-axoTuFd51Pk\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nDevelopmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009) [footnote]Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.[\/footnote] Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., \u201cmisery loves company\u201d scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16622\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]cisgender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]clique:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]used to describe a group of persons who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting. Cliques are distinguished from \"crowds\" in that their members interact with one another[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]crowds:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]large groups of adolescents defined by their shared image and reputation[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]deviant peer contagion:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]foreclosure:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts his or her parents' or society's role and values without questioning or analysis, according to Marcia's theory[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender dysphoria:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender expression:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions); can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender identity:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]homophily:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a tendency of individuals to form links disproportionately with others like themselves[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]identity achievement:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans; already questioned and made commitment according to Marcia's theory[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]identity vs. role confusion:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Erikson's term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out \"Who am I?\" but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]major depression:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]moratorium:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an adolescent's choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions. Going to college is a common example. Engaged in questioning, but not yet making a commitment, according to Marcia's theory[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]parasuicide:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (also called attempted suicide or failed suicide)[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]peer pressure:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]role confusion:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity diffusion or role diffusion)[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]self-concept:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]our individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique characteristics. It is essentially a mental picture of who you are as a person. For example, beliefs such as \"I am a good friend\" or \"I am a kind person\" are part of an overall self-concept[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]self-esteem:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]considered an important component of emotional health, self-esteem encompasses both self-confidence and self-acceptance. It is the way individuals perceive themselves and their self-value[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sex:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sexual orientation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term that refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]suicide:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the act of intentionally causing one's own death[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]suicidal ideation:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]transgender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h2>What you&#8217;ll learn to do: describe adolescent identity development and social influences on development<\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/20210053\/fatigued-1822678.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-3702\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/20210053\/fatigued-1822678-300x198.jpg\" alt=\"2 people sitting together on the grass looking at their laptops\" width=\"519\" height=\"342\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Adolescence is a period of personal and social identity formation, in which different roles, behaviors, and ideologies are explored. In the United States, adolescence is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining connected to them. Some key points related to social development during adolescence include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Adolescence is the period of life known for the formation of personal and social identity.<\/li>\n<li>Adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self.<\/li>\n<li>Erik Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s main questions are \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities and identities at once.<\/li>\n<li>Changes in the levels of certain neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and serotonin) influence the way in which adolescents experience emotions, typically making them more emotional and more sensitive to stress.<\/li>\n<li>When adolescents have advanced cognitive development and maturity, they tend to resolve identity issues more easily than peers who are less cognitively developed.<\/li>\n<li>As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important; despite this, relationships with parents still play a significant role in identity formation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe changes in self-concept and\u00a0identity development during adolescence<\/li>\n<li>Explain Marcia&#8217;s four identity statuses<\/li>\n<li>Examine changes in family relationships during adolescence<\/li>\n<li>Describe adolescent friendships and dating relationships as they apply to development<\/li>\n<li>Explain the role that aggression, anxiety, and depression play in adolescent development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Identity Formation<\/h2>\n<h3>Psychosocial Development<\/h3>\n<h4>Identity Development<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_4842\" style=\"width: 597px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4842\" class=\"wp-image-4842\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2018\/12\/15200008\/young-students-sports-endurance-teens-fellow-740655-pxhere.com_.jpg\" alt=\"Young teenagers, most wearing school uniforms, smiling outside.\" width=\"587\" height=\"391\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4842\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Adolescents simultaneously struggle to fit in with their peers and to form their own unique identities.<span style=\"color: #ff6600;\"><br \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Identity development is a stage in the adolescent life cycle.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Kroger,_J._1996_pp._40-46_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. During these years, adolescents are more open to &#8216;trying on&#8217; different behaviors and appearances to discover who they are.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-Strasburger,_V.C._2014_pp._11-19_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>In an attempt to find their identity and discover who they are, adolescents are likely to cycle through a number of identities to find one that suits them best. Developing and maintaining identity (in adolescent years) is a difficult task due to multiple factors such as family life, environment, and social status.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-Kroger,_J._1996_pp._40-46_95-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as\u00a0identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one&#8217;s thoughts about the self.<sup id=\"cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/p>\n<h4>Self-Concept<\/h4>\n<p>Two main aspects of identity development are self-concept and self-esteem.<sup id=\"cite_ref-Strasburger,_V.C._2014_pp._11-19_96-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0The idea of <strong>self-concept<\/strong> is known as the ability of a person to have opinions and beliefs that are defined confidently, consistently and with stability.<sup id=\"cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_99-0\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0Early in adolescence,\u00a0cognitive developments\u00a0result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children they defined themselves by physical traits whereas adolescents define themselves based on their values, thoughts, and opinions.<sup id=\"cite_ref-100\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Adolescents can conceptualize multiple &#8220;possible selves&#8221; that they could become and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices. Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the\u00a0actual\u00a0self toward the\u00a0ideal\u00a0self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.<sup id=\"cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Further distinctions in self-concept, called &#8220;differentiation,&#8221; occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves. Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence. Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the\u00a0personality traits\u00a0adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years,\u00a0but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.<\/p>\n<h4>Self-Esteem<\/h4>\n<p>Another aspect of identity formation is\u00a0self-esteem. <strong>Self-esteem<\/strong> is defined as one&#8217;s thoughts and feelings about one&#8217;s self-concept and identity.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Most theories on self-esteem state that there is a grand desire, across all genders and ages, to maintain, protect and enhance their self-esteem.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_99-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.<sup id=\"cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>\u00a0&#8220;Barometric self-esteem&#8221; fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-128\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-129\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends&#8217; approval or can&#8217;t find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority.\u00a0<sup id=\"cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup>As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys.<\/p>\n<h3>Identity Formation: Who am I?<\/h3>\n<p>Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erik Erikson referred to life&#8217;s fifth psychosocial task as one of <strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">identity versus role confusion\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">when <\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one&#8217;s own identity.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial; color: #000000;\">In<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">dividuals are influenced by how they resolved all of the previous childhood psychosocial crises and this adolescent stage is a bridge between the past and the future, between childhood and adulthood. <\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s main questions are \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator o<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">f successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence).\u00a0<\/span>This crisis is resolved positively with <strong>identity achievement<\/strong> and the gain of fidelity (ability to be faithful) as a new virtue, when adolescents have reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture.<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">\u00a0S<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial;\">ome adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop iden<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; font-weight: normal; text-align: initial; color: #373d3f;\">tities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents\u2019 lives.<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16617\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16617&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16617\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16618\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16618&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16618\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Expanding on Erikson&#8217;s theory, Marcia (1966)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551\u2013558.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-1\" href=\"#footnote-1310-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>) described identify formation during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and occupations. <strong>Foreclosure<\/strong> occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options. <strong>Identity confusion\/diffusion<\/strong> occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities. <strong>Moratorium<\/strong> is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. As mentioned earlier, individuals who have explored different options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of <strong>identity achievement.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Developmental psychologists have researched several different areas of identity development and some of the main areas include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Religious identity<\/strong>: The religious views of teens are often similar to those of their families (Kim-Spoon, Longo, &amp; McCullough, 2012) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Kim-Spoon, J., Longo, G.S., &amp; McCullough, M.E. (2012) Parent-adolescent relationship quality as a moderator for the influence of parents' religiousness on adolescents' religiousness and adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(12), 1576-1587.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-2\" href=\"#footnote-1310-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> Most teens may question specific customs, practices, or ideas in the faith of their parents, but few completely reject the religion of their families.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Political identity<\/strong>: An adolescent&#8217;s political identity is also influenced by their parents\u2019 political\u00a0beliefs. A new trend in the 21st century is a decrease in party affiliation among adults. Many\u00a0adults do not align themselves with either the democratic or republican party and their teenage children reflect their parents&#8217; lack of party affiliation. Although adolescents do tend to be more liberal than their elders, especially on social issues (Taylor, 2014) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Taylor, P. (2014). The next America: Boomers, millennials, and the looming generational showdown. New York, NY: Public Affairs.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-3\" href=\"#footnote-1310-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>, like other aspects of identity formation, adolescents&#8217; interest in politics is predicted by their parents&#8217; involvement and by current events (Stattin et al., 2017). <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stattin, H., Hussein, O., Ozdemir, M., &amp; Russo, S. (2017). Why do some adolescents encounter everyday events that increase their civil interest whereas others do not? Developmental Psychology, 53 (2), 306-318.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-4\" href=\"#footnote-1310-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li><strong>Vocational identity:<\/strong>\u00a0While adolescents in earlier generations envisioned themselves as working\u00a0in a particular job, and often worked as an apprentice or part-time in such occupations as teenagers, this is rarely the case today. Vocational identity takes longer to develop, as most of today\u2019s occupations require specific skills and knowledge that will require additional education or are acquired on the job itself. In addition, many of the jobs held by teens are not in occupations that most teens will seek as adults.\n<div id=\"attachment_4696\" style=\"width: 287px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4696\" class=\"wp-image-4696\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/12143255\/5387638645_10c3fa400a_o-526x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Identity spectrum showing a continuum between female and male for sex, another continuum for gender identity between woman and man, a continuum for gender expression, and another continuum for sexual orientation.\" width=\"277\" height=\"539\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4696\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. This identity spectrum shows the fluidity between sex, gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ethnic identity:\u00a0<\/strong>Ethnic identity refers to how people come to terms with who they are based on their ethnic or racial ancestry. According to the U.S. Census (2012) more than 40% of Americans under the age of 18\u00a0are from ethnic minorities. For many ethnic minority teens, discovering one\u2019s ethnic identity is\u00a0an important part of identity formation. Phinney (1989)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Phinney, J. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34\u201349.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-5\" href=\"#footnote-1310-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored ethnic identity, ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Gender identity:<\/strong>\u00a0A person\u2019s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with his or her gender.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><strong>Sex\u00a0<\/strong>refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences.\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"><span id=\"import-auto-id2021309\">Gender<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms,\u00a0roles, and relationships between groups of women and men.\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Many adolescents use their analytic, hypothetical thinking to question traditional gender roles and expression. If their\u00a0genetically assigned sex does not line up with their gender identity, they may refer to themselves as transgender, non-binary, or gender-nonconforming. <\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Gender identity<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> refers to a person&#8217;s self-perception as male, female, both, genderqueer, or neither.\u00a0<\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">C<\/strong><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">isgender\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">is an umbrella term used to describe\u00a0people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex, while <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">transgender\u00a0<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">is a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex. <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">Gender<\/strong><strong style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\"> expression<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">, or how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions) can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum.<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Fluidity and uncertainty regarding sex and gender are especially common during early adolescence, when hormones increase and fluctuate creating difficulty of self-acceptance and identity achievement (Reisner et al., 2016).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Reisner, S.L., Katz-Wise, S.L., Gordon, A.R., Corliss, H.L., &amp; Austin, S.B. (2016). Social epidemiology of depression and anxiety by gender identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59 (2), 203-208.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-6\" href=\"#footnote-1310-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> Gender identity, like vocational identity,\u00a0is becoming an increasingly prolonged task as attitudes and norms\u00a0regarding gender keep changing. The roles appropriate for males and females are evolving and some adolescents may foreclose on a gender identity as a way of dealing with this uncertainty by adopting more stereotypic male or female roles (Sinclair &amp; Carlsson, 2013) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Sinclair, S. &amp; Carlsson, R. (2013). What will I be when I grow up? The impact of gender identity threat on adolescents' occupational preferences. Journal of Adolescence, 36(3), 465-474.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-7\" href=\"#footnote-1310-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a>.\u00a0Those that identify as transgender or other face even bigger challenges.<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video takes a deeper look at Marcia&#8217;s theory of identity development and relates\u00a0the four identity statuses to college students figuring out their major.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"James Marcia&#39;s Adolescent Identity Development\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/-JrZwmHU9xE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16619\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16619&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16619\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Gender Identity and Transgender Individuals<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2368079\">Individuals who identify with the role that is different from their biological sex are called <span id=\"import-auto-id1873139\">transgender<\/span>. Approximately 1.4 million U.S. adults or .6 percent of the population are transgender according to a 2016 report.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Flores, A., J. Herman, G. Gates, and T. N.T. Brown. &quot;How many adults identify as transgender.&quot; The Williams Institute.\u00a0http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-8\" href=\"#footnote-1310-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2864557\">Transgender individuals may choose to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity.\u00a0They may also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM). Not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies; many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender. This is typically done by adopting the dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to another gender. It is important to note that people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a different gender is not the same as identifying as trans.\u00a0Cross-dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, and it is not necessarily an expression against one\u2019s assigned gender (APA 2008).<\/p>\n<p>After years of controversy over the treatment of sex and gender in the <em>American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders<\/em> (Drescher 2010), the most recent edition, DSM-5, responds to allegations that the term \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d is stigmatizing by replacing it with \u201c<strong>gender dysphoria<\/strong>.\u201d Gender identity disorder as a diagnostic category stigmatized the patient by implying there was something \u201cdisordered\u201d about them. Gender dysphoria, on the other hand, removes some of that stigma by taking the word &#8220;disorder&#8221; out while maintaining a category that will protect patient access to care, including hormone therapy and gender reassignment surgery. In the DSM-5, gender dysphoria is a condition of people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. For a person to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, there must be a marked difference between the individual\u2019s expressed\/experienced gender and the gender others would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six months. In children, the desire to be of the other gender must be present and verbalized (APA 2013).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2317293\">Changing the clinical description may contribute to a larger acceptance of transgender people in society. A 2017 poll showed that 54 percent of Americans believe gender is determined by sex at birth and 32 percent say society <span style=\"color: #339966;\">h<\/span>as &#8220;gone too far&#8221; in accepting transgender people; views are sharply divided along political and religions lines.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Salam, M. &quot;For transgender Americans, the political gets even more personal&quot; (2018). The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-9\" href=\"#footnote-1310-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Studies show that people who identify as transgender are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as nontransgender individuals; they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs 2010; Giovanniello 2013). Trans women of color are most likely be to victims of abuse. A practice called &#8220;deadnaming&#8221; by the American Civil Liberties Union, whereby trans people who are murdered are referred to by their birth name and gender, is a discriminatory tool that effectively erases a person&#8217;s trans identity and also prevents investigations into their deaths and knowledge of their deaths.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Strangio, C. 2018. &quot;Deadly violence against transgender people.&quot; ACLU. https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-10\" href=\"#footnote-1310-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a> Organizations such as the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs and Global Action for Trans Equality work to prevent, respond to, and end all types of violence against transgender and homosexual individuals. These organizations hope that by educating the public about gender identity and empowering transgender individuals, this violence will end.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Social Development during Adolescence<\/h2>\n<h4>Parents<\/h4>\n<p>It appears that most teens do not experience adolescent <span style=\"color: #339966;\">&#8220;<\/span>storm and stress<span style=\"color: #339966;\">&#8220;<\/span> to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg &amp; Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These disputes occur because an adolescent&#8217;s drive for independence and autonomy conflicts with the parent&#8217;s supervision and control. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos &amp; Almeida, 1992).<\/p>\n<p>As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, &amp; Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, &amp; Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).<\/p>\n<p>Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent\u2013child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents\u2019 distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents\u2019 attempts to set rules and know their adolescents\u2019 friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents\u2019 willingness to disclose information to their parents. (Stattin &amp; Kerr, 2000)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stattin, H., &amp; Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072\u20131085.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-11\" href=\"#footnote-1310-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a> Psychological control, which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents\u2019 emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents\u2019 feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways is another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more problematic adolescent adjustment.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296\u20133319.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-12\" href=\"#footnote-1310-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16620\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16620&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16620\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"peers\">Peers<\/h4>\n<div style=\"width: 596px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/690\/original.jpg\" alt=\"Two groups of teenage girls, most of whom are wearing head scarves, sitting and chatting on some steps.\" width=\"586\" height=\"329\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Crowds refer to different collections of people, like the \u201ctheater kids\u201d or the \u201cenvironmentalists.\u201d In a way, they are kind of like clothing brands that label the people associated with that crowd. [Image: Garry Knight]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults. Children\u2019s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents\u2019 notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings.<\/p>\n<section><\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<section class=\"content\">During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as being a function of <strong>homophily<\/strong> (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a \u201cbirds of a feather flock together\u201d way) and influence (adolescents who spend time together shape each other\u2019s behavior and attitudes). <strong>Peer pressure<\/strong> is usually depicted as peers pushing a teenager to do something that adults disapprove of, such as breaking laws or using drugs.\u00a0One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as <strong>deviant peer contagion <\/strong>(Dishion &amp; Tipsord, 2011)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Dishion, T. J., &amp; Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189\u2013214.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-13\" href=\"#footnote-1310-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a>, which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior. Although deviant peer contagion is more extreme, regular peer pressure is not always harmful.\u00a0Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or who have conflictual peer relationships.<\/section>\n<p><strong>Crowds<\/strong> are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and <strong>cliques<\/strong> (which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions (Brown &amp; Larson, 2009)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brown, B. B., &amp; Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner &amp; L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74\u2013103). New York, NY: Wiley.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-14\" href=\"#footnote-1310-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents\u2019 social status and peers\u2019 perceptions of their values or behaviors.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning: Gender Roles<\/h3>\n<p>It is interesting to note that even in today&#8217;s progressive social climate and with advances in gender equality, there are still considerable differences in the ways teenage boys and girls spend their time, as shown in 2019 research by the Pew Research Center. During the school year, teenage boys spend an average of 24 minutes a day helping around the house and 12 minutes preparing food, while teenage girls spend an average of 38 minutes a day helping around the house and 29 minutes preparing food. Both boys and girls spend more equal amounts of time on maintenance chores and lawn care. Girls also spend an average of 23 more minutes on grooming each day, which is perhaps explained by the fact that 35% of girls say they feel pressure to look good (compared with 23% of boys).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Livingston, Gretchen (February 2018). The way U.S. teens spend their time is changing, but differences between boys and girls persist. Pew Research Center.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-15\" href=\"#footnote-1310-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a> Read the article <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/02\/20\/the-way-u-s-teens-spend-their-time-is-changing-but-differences-between-boys-and-girls-persist\/\">&#8220;The Way U.S. Teens Spend Their Time is Changing, but Differences Between Boys and Girls Persist&#8221;<\/a> to learn more.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"romantic-relationships\">Romantic relationships<\/h4>\n<p>Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, &amp; Konarski, 2000)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Connolly, J., Furman, W., &amp; Konarski, R. (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development, 71, 1395\u20131408.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-16\" href=\"#footnote-1310-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman &amp; Shaffer, 2003)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Furman, W., &amp; Shaffer, L. (2003). The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development. In P. Florsheim (Ed.), Adolescent romantic relations and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications (pp. 3\u201322). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-17\" href=\"#footnote-1310-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a> Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents\u2019 identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents\u2019 emotional and behavioral adjustment.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents\u2019 emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents\u2019 sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. <strong>Sexual orientation<\/strong> refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, &amp; Clary, 2009)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Russell, S. T., Clarke, T. J., &amp; Clary, J. (2009). Are teens \u201cpost-gay\u201d? Contemporary adolescents\u2019 sexual identity labels. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 884\u2013890.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-18\" href=\"#footnote-1310-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a> Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.<\/p>\n<p>Many adolescents may choose to\u00a0come out\u00a0during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of\u00a0questioning\u00a0or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences.\u00a0A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one&#8217;s sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively.\u00a0Coming to terms with and creating a positive LGBT identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or\u00a0gender identity\u00a0are surrounded by\u00a0heteronormative\u00a0peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.\u00a0Because of this, statistically the\u00a0suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"diversity\">Diversity<\/h3>\n<p>Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals. Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in another country, and supports and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents\u2019 experiences in these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents\u2019 parents are expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making.<\/p>\n<p>Even within the same country, adolescents\u2019 gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. For example, early puberty (that occurs before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who are ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that non-minorities do not face.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence. Current approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow a <em>differential susceptibility<\/em> model (Belsky &amp; Pluess, 2009)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Belsky, J., &amp; Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis-stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885\u2013908.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-19\" href=\"#footnote-1310-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a> That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than others, but genetic variations also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental factors. For example, the association between the CHRM2 genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and delinquency) has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors (Dick et al., 2011)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Latendresse, S. J., Creemers, H. E., Lansford, J. E., \u2026 Huizink, A. C. (2011). CHRM2, parental monitoring, and adolescent externalizing behavior: Evidence for gene-environment interaction. Psychological Science, 22, 481\u2013489.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-20\" href=\"#footnote-1310-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a> Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual differences play an important role in adolescent development.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16621\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16621&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16621\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Behavioral and Psychological Adjustment<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 276px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/original.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/candimgs\/McvxyS\/sm_original.jpg\" alt=\"Young teenager holding his fists out ready to punch the photographer.\" width=\"266\" height=\"266\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. Early antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"aggression-and-antisocial-behavior\">Aggression and Antisocial Behavior<\/h3>\n<p>Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period. Patterson\u2019s (1982)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-21\" href=\"#footnote-1310-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a> <em>early versus late starter model<\/em> of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents\u2019 own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in the environment make other options more appealing.<\/p>\n<p>Similarly, Moffitt\u2019s (1993)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674\u2013701.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-22\" href=\"#footnote-1310-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a> <em>life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model<\/em> distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a \u201cmaturity gap\u201d between adolescents\u2019 dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Experiencing violence as an adolescent increases the odds of that adolescent later becoming an abusive adult, although it is not a given. Watch this video to learn more about the effects of abuse and perpetuated violence.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You&#39;ll Become One?\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/3ZeMOsXSc6Q?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Psychology and MASS Shootings<\/h3>\n<p>Virginia Tech, Columbine, Stoneman Douglas High School, Santa Fe High School, Sandy Hook, Aurora, Las Vegas, Orlando\u2014all sites of horrific and tragic mass shootings. Why are they so common? And what led the perpetrators to commit these acts of violence? Several possible factors may work together to create a fertile environment for mass murder in the United States. Most commonly suggested include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Higher accessibility and ownership of guns. The U.S. has the highest per-capita gun ownership in the world with 120.5 firearms per 100 people; the second highest is Yemen with 52.8 firearms per 100 people.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Healy, Melissa (August 24, 2015). &quot;Why the U.S. is No. 1 \u2013 in mass shootings&quot;. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 6, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-23\" href=\"#footnote-1310-23\" aria-label=\"Footnote 23\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[23]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>Mental illness<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Grinberg, Emanuella (January 25, 2016). &quot;The real mental health issue behind gun violence&quot;. CNN. Retrieved November 7, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-24\" href=\"#footnote-1310-24\" aria-label=\"Footnote 24\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[24]<\/sup><\/a> and its treatment (or the lack thereof) with psychiatric drugs. This is controversial.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Campbell, Holly (December 2, 2015). &quot;Inside the mind of a mass murderer&quot;. WANE-TV. Retrieved November 9, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-25\" href=\"#footnote-1310-25\" aria-label=\"Footnote 25\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[25]<\/sup><\/a> Many of the mass shooters in the U.S. suffered from mental illness, but the estimated number of mental illness cases has not increased as significantly as the number of mass shootings.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Christensen, Jen (October 5, 2017). &quot;Why the US has the most mass shootings&quot;. CNN. Retrieved November 6, 2017.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-26\" href=\"#footnote-1310-26\" aria-label=\"Footnote 26\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[26]<\/sup><\/a> Under 5% of violent behaviors in the U.S. are committed by persons with mental health diagnoses.\u00a0A 2002 report by the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education found evidence that a majority of school shooters displayed evidence of mental health symptoms, often undiagnosed or untreated. Criminologists Fox and DeLateur note that mental illness is only part of the issue, however, and mass shooters tend to externalize their problems, blaming others, and are unlikely to seek psychiatric help, even if available.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Peters, Justin (December 19, 2013). &quot;Everything You Think You Know about Mass Murder Is Wrong&quot;. Slate.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-27\" href=\"#footnote-1310-27\" aria-label=\"Footnote 27\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[27]<\/sup><\/a> Other scholars have concluded that mass murderers display a common constellation of chronic mental health symptoms, chronic anger or antisocial traits, and a tendency to blame others for problems.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ferguson, Christopher J.; Coulson, Mark; Barnett, Jane (January 1, 2011). &quot;Psychological Profiles of School Shooters: Positive Directions and One Big Wrong Turn&quot;. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 11 (2): 141\u2013158. doi:10.1080\/15332586.2011.581523.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-28\" href=\"#footnote-1310-28\" aria-label=\"Footnote 28\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[28]<\/sup><\/a> However, they note that attempting to &#8220;profile&#8221; school shooters with such a constellation of traits will likely result in many false positives as many individuals with such a profile do not engage in violent behaviors.<\/li>\n<li>The desire to seek revenge for a long history of being bullied at school. In recent years, citizens calling themselves &#8220;targeted individual&#8221; have cited adult bullying campaigns as a reason for their deadly violence.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Burgess, Ann Wolbert; Garbarino, Christina; Carlson, Mary I. (2006). &quot;Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide&quot;. Victims and Offenders. 1 (1): 1\u201314. doi:10.1080\/15564880500498705.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-29\" href=\"#footnote-1310-29\" aria-label=\"Footnote 29\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[29]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>The widespread chronic gap between people&#8217;s expectations for themselves and their actual achievement, and individualistic culture.<\/li>\n<li>Desire for fame and notoriety. Also, mass shooters learn from one another through &#8220;media contagion,&#8221; that is, &#8220;the mass media coverage of them and the proliferation of social media sites that tend to glorify the shooters and downplay the victims.&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>The copycat phenomenon.<\/li>\n<li>Failure of government background checks due to incomplete databases and\/or staff shortages<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Read this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2019\/02\/10\/690372199\/school-shooters-whats-their-path-to-violence\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NPR article on school shooters<\/a> to learn more about common threads shared by <em>some<\/em> who commit mass violence.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 id=\"anxiety-and-depression\">Anxiety and Depression<\/h3>\n<p>Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-30\" href=\"#footnote-1310-30\" aria-label=\"Footnote 30\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[30]<\/sup><\/a> Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-31\" href=\"#footnote-1310-31\" aria-label=\"Footnote 31\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[31]<\/sup><\/a> Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%\u20135% in adults but 16% in adolescents.\u00a0Additionally, some adolescents sink into <strong>major depression<\/strong>, a deep sadness and hopelessness that disrupts all normal, regular activities. Causes include many factors such as genetics and early childhood experiences that predate adolescence, but puberty may push vulnerable children, especially girls into despair.<\/p>\n<p>During puberty, the rate of major depression more than doubles to an estimated 15%, affecting about one in five girls and one in ten boys. The gender difference occurs for many reasons, biological and cultural (Uddin et al., 2010)\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Uddin, M., Koenen, K.C., de los Santos, R., Bakshis, E., Aielle, A.E., &amp; Galea, S. (2010). Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27(7), 658-666.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-32\" href=\"#footnote-1310-32\" aria-label=\"Footnote 32\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[32]<\/sup><\/a> Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because <strong>suicide<\/strong> is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Some adolescents experience<strong> suicidal ideation <\/strong>(distressing thoughts about killing oneself) which become most common at about age 15 (Berger, 2019)\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Berger, K.S. (2019). Invitation to the Lifespan (4th ed). Worth Publishers, NY.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-33\" href=\"#footnote-1310-33\" aria-label=\"Footnote 33\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[33]<\/sup><\/a> and can lead to <strong>parasuicide<\/strong>, also called attempted suicide or failed suicide. Suicidal ideation and parasuicide should be taken seriously and serve as a warning that emotions may be overwhelming.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This short video emphasizes how suicide is a major health issue and concern for teenagers, and also how it is important for parents, caregivers, teachers, and friends to be open enough to talk about it.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935318&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=axoTuFd51Pk&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-fj25pejz-axoTuFd51Pk\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Developmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009) <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis.\" id=\"return-footnote-1310-34\" href=\"#footnote-1310-34\" aria-label=\"Footnote 34\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[34]<\/sup><\/a> Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., \u201cmisery loves company\u201d scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16622\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16622&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16622\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>cisgender:<\/dt>\n<dd>an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex<\/dd>\n<dt>clique:<\/dt>\n<dd>used to describe a group of persons who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting. Cliques are distinguished from &#8220;crowds&#8221; in that their members interact with one another<\/dd>\n<dt>crowds:<\/dt>\n<dd>large groups of adolescents defined by their shared image and reputation<\/dd>\n<dt>deviant peer contagion:<\/dt>\n<dd>process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior<\/dd>\n<dt>foreclosure:<\/dt>\n<dd>term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts his or her parents&#8217; or society&#8217;s role and values without questioning or analysis, according to Marcia&#8217;s theory<\/dd>\n<dt>gender:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female<\/dd>\n<dt>gender dysphoria:<\/dt>\n<dd>a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d<\/dd>\n<dt>gender expression:<\/dt>\n<dd>how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions); can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum<\/dd>\n<dt>gender identity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer<\/dd>\n<dt>homophily:<\/dt>\n<dd>a tendency of individuals to form links disproportionately with others like themselves<\/dd>\n<dt>identity achievement:<\/dt>\n<dd>Erikson&#8217;s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans; already questioned and made commitment according to Marcia&#8217;s theory<\/dd>\n<dt>identity vs. role confusion:<\/dt>\n<dd>Erikson&#8217;s term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out &#8220;Who am I?&#8221; but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt<\/dd>\n<dt>major depression:<\/dt>\n<dd>feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more<\/dd>\n<dt>moratorium:<\/dt>\n<dd>an adolescent&#8217;s choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions. Going to college is a common example. Engaged in questioning, but not yet making a commitment, according to Marcia&#8217;s theory<\/dd>\n<dt>parasuicide:<\/dt>\n<dd>any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (also called attempted suicide or failed suicide)<\/dd>\n<dt>peer pressure:<\/dt>\n<dd>encouragement to conform to one&#8217;s friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority<\/dd>\n<dt>role confusion:<\/dt>\n<dd>a situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity diffusion or role diffusion)<\/dd>\n<dt>self-concept:<\/dt>\n<dd>our individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique characteristics. It is essentially a mental picture of who you are as a person. For example, beliefs such as &#8220;I am a good friend&#8221; or &#8220;I am a kind person&#8221; are part of an overall self-concept<\/dd>\n<dt>self-esteem:<\/dt>\n<dd>considered an important component of emotional health, self-esteem encompasses both self-confidence and self-acceptance. It is the way individuals perceive themselves and their self-value<\/dd>\n<dt>sex:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females<\/dd>\n<dt>sexual orientation:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term that refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes<\/dd>\n<dt>suicide:<\/dt>\n<dd>the act of intentionally causing one&#8217;s own death<\/dd>\n<dt>suicidal ideation:<\/dt>\n<dd>thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones<\/dd>\n<dt>transgender:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1310\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Tera Jones for Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/Lumen%20Learning\">http:\/\/Lumen%20Learning<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Tera Jones for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Laptop. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sasin Tipchai. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-1822678\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-1822678\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Key points of socioemotional development during adolescence. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Boundless. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-psychology\/chapter\/adolescence\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-psychology\/chapter\/adolescence\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>First section on Psychosocial Development. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Adolescent Development . <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jennifer Lansford. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3\">http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Adolescence. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adolescence\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adolescence<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender Identity. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/sex-and-gender\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/sex-and-gender\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>young teenagers. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pxhere. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/740655\">https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/740655<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>School Shooting. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_shooting\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_shooting<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Mass Shootings in the United States. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>James Marcia&#039;s Adolescent Identity Development. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Kim Eaton. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-JrZwmHU9xE\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-JrZwmHU9xE<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Talking with Kids About Suicide. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: NationwideChildrens. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=axoTuFd51Pk\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=axoTuFd51Pk<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You&#039;ll Become One?. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: SciShow Psych. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1310-1\">Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551\u2013558. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-2\">Kim-Spoon, J., Longo, G.S., &amp; McCullough, M.E. (2012) Parent-adolescent relationship quality as a moderator for the influence of parents' religiousness on adolescents' religiousness and adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(12), 1576-1587. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-3\">Taylor, P. (2014). The next America: Boomers, millennials, and the looming generational showdown. New York, NY: Public Affairs. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-4\">Stattin, H., Hussein, O., Ozdemir, M., &amp; Russo, S. (2017). Why do some adolescents encounter everyday events that increase their civil interest whereas others do not? Developmental Psychology, 53 (2), 306-318. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-5\">Phinney, J. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34\u201349. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-6\">Reisner, S.L., Katz-Wise, S.L., Gordon, A.R., Corliss, H.L., &amp; Austin, S.B. (2016). Social epidemiology of depression and anxiety by gender identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59 (2), 203-208. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-7\">Sinclair, S. &amp; Carlsson, R. (2013). What will I be when I grow up? The impact of gender identity threat on adolescents' occupational preferences. Journal of Adolescence, 36(3), 465-474. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-8\">Flores, A., J. Herman, G. Gates, and T. N.T. Brown. \"How many adults identify as transgender.\" The Williams Institute.\u00a0http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-9\">Salam, M. \"For transgender Americans, the political gets even more personal\" (2018). The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-10\">Strangio, C. 2018. \"Deadly violence against transgender people.\" ACLU. https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-11\">Stattin, H., &amp; Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072\u20131085. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-12\">Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296\u20133319. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-13\">Dishion, T. J., &amp; Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189\u2013214. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-14\">Brown, B. B., &amp; Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner &amp; L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74\u2013103). New York, NY: Wiley. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-15\">Livingston, Gretchen (February 2018). The way U.S. teens spend their time is changing, but differences between boys and girls persist. Pew Research Center. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-16\">Connolly, J., Furman, W., &amp; Konarski, R. (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development, 71, 1395\u20131408. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-17\">Furman, W., &amp; Shaffer, L. (2003). The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development. In P. Florsheim (Ed.), Adolescent romantic relations and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications (pp. 3\u201322). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-18\">Russell, S. T., Clarke, T. J., &amp; Clary, J. (2009). Are teens \u201cpost-gay\u201d? Contemporary adolescents\u2019 sexual identity labels. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 884\u2013890. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-19\">Belsky, J., &amp; Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis-stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885\u2013908. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-20\">Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Latendresse, S. J., Creemers, H. E., Lansford, J. E., \u2026 Huizink, A. C. (2011). CHRM2, parental monitoring, and adolescent externalizing behavior: Evidence for gene-environment interaction. Psychological Science, 22, 481\u2013489. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-21\">Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-22\">Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674\u2013701. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-23\">Healy, Melissa (August 24, 2015). \"Why the U.S. is No. 1 \u2013 in mass shootings\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 6, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-23\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 23\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-24\">Grinberg, Emanuella (January 25, 2016). \"The real mental health issue behind gun violence\". CNN. Retrieved November 7, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-24\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 24\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-25\">Campbell, Holly (December 2, 2015). \"Inside the mind of a mass murderer\". WANE-TV. Retrieved November 9, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-25\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 25\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-26\">Christensen, Jen (October 5, 2017). \"Why the US has the most mass shootings\". CNN. Retrieved November 6, 2017. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-26\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 26\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-27\">Peters, Justin (December 19, 2013). \"Everything You Think You Know about Mass Murder Is Wrong\". Slate. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-27\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 27\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-28\">Ferguson, Christopher J.; Coulson, Mark; Barnett, Jane (January 1, 2011). \"Psychological Profiles of School Shooters: Positive Directions and One Big Wrong Turn\". Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations. 11 (2): 141\u2013158. doi:10.1080\/15332586.2011.581523. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-28\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 28\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-29\">Burgess, Ann Wolbert; Garbarino, Christina; Carlson, Mary I. (2006). \"Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide\". Victims and Offenders. 1 (1): 1\u201314. doi:10.1080\/15564880500498705. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-29\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 29\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-30\">Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-30\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 30\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-31\">American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-31\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 31\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-32\">Uddin, M., Koenen, K.C., de los Santos, R., Bakshis, E., Aielle, A.E., &amp; Galea, S. (2010). Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27(7), 658-666. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-32\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 32\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-33\">Berger, K.S. (2019). Invitation to the Lifespan (4th ed). Worth Publishers, NY. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-33\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 33\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1310-34\">Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema &amp; L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377\u2013418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1310-34\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 34\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Laptop\",\"author\":\"Sasin Tipchai\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-1822678\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Key points of socioemotional development during adolescence\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Boundless\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-psychology\/chapter\/adolescence\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Tera Jones for Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"First section on Psychosocial Development\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Adolescent Development \",\"author\":\"Jennifer Lansford\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Adolescence\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adolescence\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Tera Jones for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"James Marcia\\'s Adolescent Identity Development\",\"author\":\"Kim Eaton\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-JrZwmHU9xE\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Gender Identity\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-introductiontosociology\/chapter\/sex-and-gender\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"young teenagers\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Pxhere\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/740655\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Talking with Kids About Suicide\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"NationwideChildrens\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=axoTuFd51Pk\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"School Shooting\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/School_shooting\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Mass Shootings in the United States\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Does Having Abusive Parents Mean You\\'ll Become One?\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"SciShow Psych\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3ZeMOsXSc6Q\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"805b0661-f418-438f-a23f-fc62b540333d, ","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1310","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":308,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1310","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":17,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1310\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6478,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1310\/revisions\/6478"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/308"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1310\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1310"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1310"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1310"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1310"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}