{"id":2837,"date":"2019-05-14T02:40:52","date_gmt":"2019-05-14T02:40:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-lifespandevelopment\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2837"},"modified":"2019-09-11T18:35:54","modified_gmt":"2019-09-11T18:35:54","slug":"psychodynamic-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/chapter\/psychodynamic-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Psychodynamic Theories","rendered":"Psychodynamic Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you'll learn to do: use psychodynamic theories (like those from Freud and Erikson) to explain development<\/h2>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/05\/19191150\/theories.png\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-3581\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/05\/19191150\/theories-300x300.png\" alt=\"Graphic of two heads, question marks coming out of one head and lightbulbs from the other\" width=\"399\" height=\"399\" \/><\/a>\r\n\r\nMany people sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, \u201cNow we are going to look at some theories...\u201d may elicit some blank stares or yawns. But, don't tune out quite yet! Theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; they are proposed explanations for the \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhys\u201d of development. In this first section, we'll examine some of the most persistent theories, developed by Sigmund Freud over a hundred years ago. While some of Freud's ideas have since been debunked, others have lasted and continue to shape the way we think about development.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe theories as they relate to lifespan development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the historical foundations leading to the development of theories about lifespan development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Freud's theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Understanding Theories<\/h2>\r\nA theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well.\u00a0It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies.\u00a0Think of theories are guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that required assembly.\u00a0The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.\r\n\r\nTheories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples.\u00a0Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. \u00a0Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application.\u00a0\u00a0Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.\r\n<h3>What is a theory?<\/h3>\r\nIn l<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ifespan development,<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">\u00a0we need to relying on a systematic approach to understanding behavior, based on observable events and the scientific method. There are so many different observations about childhood, adulthood, and development in general that we use theories to help organize all of the different observable events or variables. A theory is a simplified explanation of the world that attempts to explain how variables interact with each other. It can take complex, interconnected issues and narrow it down to the essentials. This enables developmental theorists and researchers to analyze the problem in greater depth.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2906\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"392\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/24112904\/CNX_Psych_02_01_Method.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-2906\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/24112904\/CNX_Psych_02_01_Method-300x258.jpg\" alt=\"flowchart showing that a theory is used to form a hypothesis, the hypothesis leads to research, research leads to observation, which leads to the creation or modification of a theory, then back around.\" width=\"392\" height=\"338\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Theories are often revisited and tested through experiments and research.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTwo key concepts\u00a0in the scientific approach are theory\u00a0and hypothesis. A <strong>theory<\/strong> is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that\u00a0can be used to make predictions about future observations. A <strong>hypothesis<\/strong> is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests.\u00a0In essence, lifespan theories explain observable events in a meaningful way. They are not as specific as hypotheses, which are so specific that we use them to make predictions in research. Theories offer more general explanations about behavior and events.\r\n\r\nThink of theories are guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that required assembly.\u00a0The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.\r\n\r\nTheories can be developed using induction, in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples.\u00a0Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. \u00a0Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.\r\n\r\nPeople who study lifespan development approach the it from different perspectives. Each perspective encompasses one or more theories\u2014the broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333;\">Throughout psychological history and still in present day, three key issues remain among which developmental theorists often disagree. Particularly oft-disputed is the role of early experiences on later development in opposition to current behavior reflecting present experiences\u2013namely the <em>passive verses active issue<\/em>. Likewise, whether or not development is best viewed as occurring in stages or rather as a gradual and cumulative process of change has traditionally been up for debate \u2013 a question of <em>continuity versus discontinuity.<\/em> Further, the role of heredity and the environment in shaping human development is a much contested topic of discussion \u2013 also referred to as <em>nature\/nurture debate<\/em>. We'll examine each of these issues in more detail throughout the course.<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16511\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>History of Developmental Psychology<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2834\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/14023401\/752px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-2834 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/14023401\/752px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909-300x239.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of early psychologists, including Freud and Hall.\" width=\"300\" height=\"239\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Some major players in the early development of psychology. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, S\u00e1ndor Ferenczi, at: Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. Date: September 1909.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe scientific study of children began in the late nineteenth century, and blossomed in the early twentieth century as pioneering psychologists sought to uncover the secrets of human behavior by studying its development. Developmental psychology made an early appearance in a more literary form, however. William Shakespeare had his melancholy character, \"Jacques\" (in As You Like It), articulate the \"seven ages of man,\" which included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood.\r\n\r\nThree early scholars, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Charles Darwin proposed theories of human behavior that are the \"direct ancestors of the three major theoretical traditions\" of developmental psychology today(Vasta et al, 1998, p. 10). Locke, a British empiricist, adhered to a strict environmentalist position, that the mind of the newborn as a tabula rasa (\"blank slate\") on which knowledge is written through experience and learning. Rousseau, a Swiss philosopher who spent much of his life in France, proposed a nativistic model in his famous novel <em>Emile<\/em>, in which development occurs according to innate processes progressing through three stages: Infans (infancy), puer (childhood), and adolescence. Rousseau detailed some of the necessary progression through these stages in order to develop into an ideal citizen. Although some aspects of his text were controversial, Rousseau's ideas were strongly influential on educators at the time. Finally, the work of Darwin, the British biologist famous for his theory of evolution, led others to suggest that development proceeds through evolutionary recapitulation, with many human behaviors having their origins in successful adaptations in the past as \"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.\"\r\n<h4>G. Stanley Hall<\/h4>\r\nDarwin's theories greatly influenced\u00a0G. Stanley Hall, who believed that children developed over their lifetime much in the same way that a species evolved throughout time. His interests focused on childhood development, adolescence, and evolutionary theory. His major contributions to the field are that he taught the first courses in child development, several of his students becoming leading researchers in the field, and he established scientific journals for the publication of child development research. He was also the first president of the\u00a0American Psychological Association.\r\n<h4>James Mark Baldwin<\/h4>\r\nAnother early contributor to the study of development was James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934), a Princeton educated American philosopher and psychologist who did quantitative and experimental research on infant development. He made important contributions to early psychology, psychiatry, and to the theory of evolution. Baldwin wrote essays such as \"Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes\", which made a vivid impression on Jean Piaget\u00a0(who later developed the most popular theory of cognitive development) and Lawrence Kohlberg (who developed a theory about moral judgment and development).\r\n<h4>John B. Watson<\/h4>\r\nThe 20th century marked the formation of qualitative distinctions between children and adults. When John Watson wrote the book <em>Psychological Care of Infant and Child<\/em> in 1928, he sought to add clarification surrounding behaviorists views on child care and development. Watson was the founder of the field of behaviorism, which emphasized the role of nurture, or the environment, in human development. He believed, based on Locke's environmentalist position, that human behavior can be understood in terms of experiences and learning. He believed that all behaviors are learned, or conditioned, as evidenced by his famous \"Little Albert\" study, in which he conditioned an infant to fear a white rat. In Watson's book on care of the infant and child, Watson explained that children should be treated as a young adult\u2014with respect, but also without emotional attachment. In the book, he warned against the inevitable dangers of a mother providing too much love and affection. Watson explained that love, along with everything else as the behaviorist saw the world, is conditioned. Watson supported his warnings by mentioning invalidism, saying that society does not overly comfort children as they become young adults in the real world, so parents should not set up these unrealistic expectations. His book (obviously) became highly criticized, but was still influential in promoting more research into early childhood behavior and development.\r\n<h4>Sigmund Freud<\/h4>\r\nAnother name you are probably familiar with who was influential in the study human development is Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud's model of \"psychosexual development\" grew out of his psychoanalytic approach to human personality and psychopathology. In sharp contrast to the objective approach espoused by Watson, Freud based his model of child development on his own and his patients' recollections of their childhood. He developed a stage model of development in which the libido, or sexual energy, of the child focuses on different \"zones\" or areas of the body as the child grows to adulthood. Freud's model is an \"interactionist\" one, since he believed that although the sequence and timing of these stages is biologically determined, successful personality development depends on the experiences the child has during each stage. Although the details of Freud's developmental theory have been widely criticized, his emphasis on the importance of early childhood experiences, prior to five years of age, has had a lasting impact.\r\n<h4>Arnold Gesell<\/h4>\r\nArnold Gesell, a student of G. Stanley Hall, carried out the first large-scale detailed study of children's behavior, authoring several books on the topic in the 1920s, 30s, and 40s. His research revealed consistent patterns of development, supporting his view that human development depends on biological \"maturation,\" with the environment providing only minor variations in the age at which a skill might emerge but never affecting the sequence or pattern. Gesell's research produced norms, such as the order and the normal age range in which a variety of early behaviors such as sitting, crawling, and walking emerge. In conducting his studies, Gesell developed sophisticated observational techniques, including one-way viewing screens and recording methods that did not disturb the child.\r\n<h4>Jean Piaget<\/h4>\r\nJean Piaget (1896-1980) is considered one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth century, and his stage theory of cognitive development revolutionized our view of children's thinking and learning. His work inspired more research than any other theorist, and many of his concepts are still foundational to developmental psychology. His interest lay in children's knowledge, their thinking, and the qualitative differences in their thinking as it develops. Although he called his field \"genetic epistemology,\" stressing the role of biological determinism, he also assigned great importance to experience. In his view, children \"construct\" their knowledge through processes of \"assimilation,\" in which they evaluate and try to understand new information, based on their existing knowledge of the world, and \"accommodation,\" in which they expand and modify their cognitive structures based on new experiences.\r\n\r\nModern developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain modifications throughout an individual\u2019s life-cycle (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) and human growth change over time.\u00a0There are many theorists that have made, and continue to make, a profound contribution to this area of psychology, amongst whom is Erik Erikson \u00a0who developed a model of eight stages of psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and this would affect their behaviors. In this module, we'll examine some of these major theories and contributions made my prominent psychologists.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16512\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Psychodynamic Theory<\/h2>\r\n<h3>The Psychodynamic Perspective: A Focus on the Inner Person<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Freud and Psychoanalysis<\/h4>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_562\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"293\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\"><img class=\"wp-image-562 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\" alt=\"Freud photograph. He has a stern look on his face, a short, white beard, and a cigar in his hand.\" width=\"293\" height=\"293\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Sigmund Freud.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWe begin with\u00a0Sigmund Freud, one of the most well-known pioneers and early\u00a0founders of psychology who\u00a0has been a very influential figure in the area of development. His <strong>psychodynamic perspective<\/strong> of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1930s and beyond.\u00a0His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years.\u00a0We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states.\u00a0There is a growing body of literature addressing resiliency in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O'Grady and Metz, 1987).\u00a0Freud stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas.\u00a0Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.\r\n<h4>Background<\/h4>\r\nSigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who was trained in neurology and asked to work with patients suffering from hysteria, a conditioned marked my uncontrollable emotional outbursts, fears, and anxiety that had puzzled physicians for centuries.\u00a0He was also asked to work with women who suffered from physical symptoms and forms of paralysis which had no organic causes.\u00a0During that time, many people believed that certain individuals were genetically inferior and thus more susceptible to mental illness.\u00a0Women were thought to be genetically inferior and thus prone to illnesses such as hysteria, which had previously been attributed to a detached womb traveling around in the body (the word \"hyster\" means \"uterus\" in Greek).\r\n\r\nHowever, after World War I, many soldiers came home with problems similar to hysteria.\u00a0This called into questions the idea of genetic inferiority as a cause of mental illness. Freud began working with hysterical patients and discovered that when they began to talk about some of their life experiences, particularly those that took place in early childhood, their symptoms disappeared.\u00a0This led him to suggest the first purely psychological explanation for physical problems and mental illness.\u00a0What he proposed was that unconscious motives, desires, fears, and anxieties drive our actions.\u00a0When upsetting memories or thoughts begin to find their way into our consciousness, we develop defenses to shield us from these painful realities, called defense mechanisms.\u00a0Freud believed that many mental illnesses are a result of a person\u2019s inability to accept reality.\r\n\r\nFreud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior.\u00a0In our natural state, we are biological beings.\u00a0We are driven primarily by instincts.\u00a0During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0The type of parenting the child receives has a very powerful impact on the child\u2019s personality development.\u00a0We will explore this idea further in our discussion of psychosexual development, but first, we must identify the parts of the \"self\" in Freud's model, or in other words, what constitutes a person's personality and makes us who we are.\r\n<h3>Theory of Personality\/Self<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2898\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"248\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-2898 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"Picture of an iceberg showing the id fully under the water, with the ego mostly sticking out of the water, and the superego also largely underwater, with a portion above water. Underwater is unconscious territory, while above water is conscious.\" width=\"248\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. According to\u00a0Freud's\u00a0model of the psyche, the\u00a0id\u00a0is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the\u00a0superego\u00a0operates as a moral conscience, and the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the\u00a0id\u00a0and the\u00a0superego.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs adults, our personality or self consists of three main parts: the <strong>id<\/strong>, the <strong>ego,\u00a0<\/strong>and the <strong>superego<\/strong>.\u00a0The id,\u00a0the basic, primal part of the personality, is the part of the self with which we are born.\u00a0It consists of the biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives.\u00a0It is the part of us that wants\u00a0immediate gratification.\u00a0Later in life, it comes to house our deepest, often unacceptable desires, such as sex and aggression.\u00a0It operates under the pleasure principle which means that the criteria for determining whether something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. An infant is all id.\r\n\r\nNext, the ego begins to develop during the first three years of a child's life. Finally, the superego. The\u00a0superego<strong>,\u00a0<\/strong>the last component of personality to develop,\u00a0starts to emerge around the age of five\u00a0when a child interacts\u00a0more and more with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or\u2014when we fall short of the ideal\u2014feelings of guilt.\r\n\r\nIn contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the rational part of our personality. It\u2019s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the \u201creality principle.\u201d The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.\r\n\r\nThe id and superego are in constant conflict because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the ego\u2019s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id\u2019s desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to\u00a0<strong>neurosis<\/strong>\u00a0(a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16513\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16514\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Theory of Psychosexual Development<\/h3>\r\nFreud believed that personality develops during early childhood and that childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage even as adults.\r\n\r\nIn each\u00a0<strong>psychosexual stage <\/strong>of development, the child\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Table 1).\r\n<table summary=\"A five column table outlines Freud\u2019s stages of psychosexual development. From left to right the columns are labeled, \u201cStage, Age (years), Erogenous Zone, Major Conflict, and Adult Fixation Example.\u201d The contents of the five rows are as follows. The first row contains \u201coral; 0\u20131; mouth; weaning off breast or bottle; and smoking, overeating.\u201d The second row contains \u201canal; 1\u20133; anus; toilet training; and neatness, messiness.\u201d The third row contains \u201cphallic; 3\u20136; genitals; Oedipus\/Electra complex; and vanity, overambition.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201clatency; 6\u201312; none; none; and none.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cgenital; 12+; genitals; none; and none.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Freud\u2019s Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Erogenous Zone<\/th>\r\n<th>Major Conflict<\/th>\r\n<th>Adult Fixation Example<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Oral<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>Mouth<\/td>\r\n<td>Weaning off breast or bottle<\/td>\r\n<td>Smoking, overeating<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Anal<\/td>\r\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>Anus<\/td>\r\n<td>Toilet training<\/td>\r\n<td>Neatness, messiness<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Phallic<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\r\n<td>Oedipus\/Electra complex<\/td>\r\n<td>Vanity, overambition<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Latency<\/td>\r\n<td>6\u201312<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Genital<\/td>\r\n<td>12+<\/td>\r\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nFor about the first year of life, the infant is in the <strong>oral stage<\/strong> of psychosexual development.\u00a0The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification.\u00a0A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well.\u00a0Psychologically, the infant is all id. The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation.\u00a0If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further.\u00a0However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may stay stuck in the oral stage.\u00a0As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive talking.\u00a0These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.\r\n\r\nDuring the <strong>anal stage<\/strong>, which coincides with toddlerhood and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed.\u00a0There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out.\u00a0The child is learning a sense of self-control.\u00a0The ego is being developed. If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control.\u00a0He may become fixated in this stage or \u201canally retentive\u201d\u2014fearful of letting go.\u00a0Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others.\u00a0If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be \u201canal expulsive\u201d or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized.\r\n\r\nThe <strong>phallic stage<\/strong> occurs during the preschool years (ages 3-5) when the child has a new biological challenge to face. The child will experience the Oedipus complex which refers to a child's\u00a0unconscious\u00a0sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and hatred for the same-sex parent. For example, boys experiencing the Oedipus complex will unconsciously want to replace their father as a companion to their mother but then realize that the father is much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, his father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risk losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms, thereby learning the role of males in his society. From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply. In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a \"phallic male\" or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure), by seducing women and beating up men.\r\n\r\nGirls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage\u2014the Electra complex. The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud\u2019s contemporary, Carl Jung (Jung &amp; Kerenyi, 1963). A little girl experiences the Electra complex in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with her mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences \"penis envy\"). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and\u00a0will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female. \u00a0However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a \"castrating female\" who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life. The formation of the superego takes place during the dissolution of the Oedipus and Electra complex.\r\n\r\nDuring middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the <strong>latency stage,<\/strong> focusing their attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, they will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.\r\n\r\nThe final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the <strong>genital stage<\/strong>.\u00a0From adolescence throughout adulthood, a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into a safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the id with the superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges.\u00a0Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges.\r\n\r\nFreud\u2019s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To understand the origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with the political, social, and cultural influences of Freud\u2019s day in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a climate of sexual repression, combined with limited understanding and education surrounding human sexuality heavily influenced Freud\u2019s perspective. Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional states (neuroses) stemmed from the suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges. For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations of patients\u2019 experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to better understand Freud's theory of psychosexual development.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935242&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hsie2EuNCNI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-r1dq78oh-hsie2EuNCNI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16515\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Defense mechanisms<\/h3>\r\nFreud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego\u2019s inability to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as <strong>defense mechanisms<\/strong>. When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. To do that, the individual\u2019s unconscious mind uses ego\u00a0defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2899\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"896\"]<img class=\"wp-image-2899\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23140837\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Defense.jpg\" alt=\"A chart defines eight defense mechanisms and gives an example of each. \u201cDenial\u201d is defined as \u201cRefusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant.\u201d The example given is \u201cKaila refuses to admit she has an alcohol problem although she is unable to go a single day without drinking excessively.\u201d \u201cDisplacement\u201d is defined as \u201cTransferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target.\u201d The example given is \u201cDuring lunch at a restaurant, Mark is angry at his older brother, but does not express it and instead is verbally abusive to the server.\u201d \u201cProjection\u201d is defined as \u201cAttributing unacceptable desires to others.\u201d The example given is \u201cChris often cheats on her boyfriend because she suspects he is already cheating on her.\u201d \u201cRationalization\u201d is defined as \u201cJustifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons.\u201d The example given is \u201cKim failed his history course because he did not study or attend class, but he told his roommates that he failed because the professor didn\u2019t like him.\u201d \u201cReaction Formation\u201d is defined as \u201cReducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs.\u201d The example given is \u201cNadia is angry with her coworker Beth for always arriving late to work after a night of partying, but she is nice and agreeable to Beth and affirms the partying as cool.\u201d \u201cRegression\u201d is defined as \u201cReturning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development.\u201d The example given is \u201cAfter failing to pass his doctoral examinations, Giorgio spends days in bed cuddling his favorite childhood toy.\u201d \u201cRepression\u201d is defined as \u201cSupressing painful memories and thoughts.\u201d The example given is \u201cLaShea cannot remember her grandfather\u2019s fatal heart attack, although she was present.\u201d \u201cSublimation\u201d is defined as \u201cRedirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels.\u201d The example given is \u201cJerome\u2019s desire for revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son is channeled into a community support group for people who\u2019ve lost loved ones to drunk driving.\" width=\"896\" height=\"1056\" \/> <strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. Defense mechanisms are unconscious protective behaviors that work to reduce anxiety.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDefense mechanisms emerge to help a person distort reality so that the truth is less painful.\u00a0Defense mechanisms include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Denial\u2014<\/strong>not accepting the truth or lying to oneself.\u00a0Thoughts such as \u201cit won\u2019t happen to me\u201d or \u201cyou\u2019re not leaving\u201d or \u201cI don\u2019t have a problem with alcohol\u201d are examples.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Displacement\u2014<\/strong>taking out frustrations on a safer target.\u00a0A person who is angry at a boss may take out their frustration at others when driving home or at a spouse upon arrival.<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Projection\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others.\u00a0If someone is frightened, for example, they accuse someone else of being afraid.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>R<\/strong><strong>ationalization\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud (Freud's daughter who continued in her father's path of psychoanalysis). Rationalization involves a cognitive distortion of \"the facts\" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We often do it on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Reaction formation\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.\u00a0An example of this might be someone who dislikes or fears people of another race acting overly nice to people of that race.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Regression\u2014<\/strong>going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one\u2019s childhood behaviors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Repression\u2014<\/strong>to push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other words, think about something else).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Sublimation\u2014<\/strong>transforming unacceptable urges into more socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0For example, a teenager who experiences strong sexual urges uses exercise to redirect those urges into more socially acceptable behavior.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video explains more about each of the defense mechanisms.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/v80Nd8w1uts[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16516\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective<\/h3>\r\nOriginating in the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and fears of which we\u2019re not fully aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.\u00a0When reading Freud\u2019s theories, it is important to remember that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no such thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his education, which can help us understand some of the controversies over his theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we associate with modern psychology.\u00a0The psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since Freud\u2019s time, encompassing all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of conscious and unconscious drives and forces within the person, and between the different structures of the personality (id, ego, superego).\r\n\r\nFreud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons.\u00a0One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically.\u00a0How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood?\u00a0Are there other variables that might better explain development?\u00a0Because\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">psychodynamic theories are difficult to prove wrong, evaluating those theories, in general, is difficult in that we cannot make definite predictions about a given individual's behavior using the theories.\u00a0<\/span>The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed.\u00a0Freud focused on the darker side of human nature and suggested that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Others make the criticism that the psychodynamic approach is too deterministic, relating to the idea that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will, thereby\u00a0leaving little room for the idea of free will.<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\">[footnote]The Generative Society: Caring for Future Generations \u2013 January 1, 2004 by Ed De St Aubin (Author), Ed St Aubin (Editor), Henry Wade Rogers Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Psychology Department Dan P McAdams PhD (Editor), Tae-Chang Kim (Editor)[\/footnote]<\/span><\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\nFreud\u2019s work has been extremely influential, and its impact extends far beyond psychology (several years ago\u00a0<em>Time<\/em>\u00a0magazine selected Freud as one of the most important thinkers of the 20th century). Freud\u2019s work has been not only influential but quite controversial as well. As you might imagine, when Freud suggested in 1900 that much of our behavior is determined by psychological forces of which we\u2019re largely unaware\u2014that we literally don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on in our own minds\u2014people were (to put it mildly) displeased (Freud, 1900\/1953a). When he suggested in 1905 that we humans have strong sexual feelings from a very early age and that some of these sexual feelings are directed toward our parents, people were more than displeased\u2014they were outraged (Freud, 1905\/1953b). Few theories in psychology have evoked such strong reactions from other professionals and members of the public.\r\n\r\nSo why do we study Freud?\u00a0As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices.\u00a0Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development.\u00a0Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud\u2019s views.\u00a0Controversy notwithstanding, no competent psychologist, or student of psychology, can ignore psychodynamic theory. It is simply too important for psychological science and practice and continues to play an important role in a wide variety of disciplines within and outside psychology (for example, developmental psychology, social psychology, sociology, and neuroscience; see\u00a0Bornstein, 2005,\u00a02006;\u00a0Solms &amp; Turnbull, 2011).\r\n<h2>Psychosocial Theory<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_564\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"233\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-564 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\" alt=\"Profile photo of an old Erik Erikson\" width=\"233\" height=\"292\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 6.<\/strong> Erik Erikson.[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Erikson's Psychosocial Theory<\/h3>\r\nNow, let's turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud\u2019s and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).\r\n<h3>Background<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm132804624\">As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik\u00a0<span class=\"no-emphasis\">Erikson<\/span>\u00a0met Freud\u2019s daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual\u2019s personality develops throughout the lifespan\u2014a departure from Freud\u2019s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud\u2019s emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/h3>\r\nErikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id.\u00a0We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeti<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ng certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones.\u00a0Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.<\/span>\r\n\r\nErikson's theory is based on what he calls the <em>epigenetic principle<\/em>, encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in\u00a0stages of psychosocial development, where \"progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.\"[footnote]Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Chapter 3: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 92.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Erikson\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">described eight stages, each with\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail whe<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">n we discuss each of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage:<\/span>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><b>Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)<\/b>\u2014From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child's basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of\u00a0anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)<\/b>\u2014As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)<\/b>\u2014Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child's choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-2\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)<\/b>\u2014During the elementary school stage (ages 7\u201312), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don\u2019t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-3\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)<\/b>\u2014In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of\u00a0<em>identity vs. role confusion.\u00a0<\/em>According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas,\u00a0set\u00a0goals, and attempt to discover their adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of\u00a0problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to find themselves as adults.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-5\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)<\/b>\u2014People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)<\/b>\u2014When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><b>Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)<\/b>\u2014From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They may face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<table id=\"Table_11_03_01\" class=\"mt-responsive-table\" style=\"height: 335px;\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\" width=\"1027\"><caption><em><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/em><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\" scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\" scope=\"col\">Approximate Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\" scope=\"col\">Virtue: Developmental Task<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\" scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">1<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">2<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Will: Autonomy vs. Shame\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Sense of independence in many tasks develops<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">3<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">4<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">5<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">12\u201318<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">6<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">19\u201339<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">7<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">40\u201364<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation<\/b><b>\r\n<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">8<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">65+<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Wisdom: Integrity vs. Despair\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson's theory<\/h3>\r\nErikson's eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan.\u00a0Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy.\u00a0Erikson\u2019s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development.\u00a0His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all.\u00a0For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.\r\n\r\nBy and large, Erikson's view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, like Freud's theory, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to learn more about each of Erikson's stages.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/SIoKwUcmivk[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16517\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16518\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]anal stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]defense mechanisms:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]ego:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id\u2019s desires in a rational way[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]eight stages of psychosocial development:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Erikson's stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame\/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]genital stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]hypothesis:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a testable prediction[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]id:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]latency stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]neurosis:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a tendency to experience negative emotions[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]oral stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]phallic stage:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychodynamic perspective:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychosexual stages:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]Freud's oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]psychosocial theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]superego:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h2>What you&#8217;ll learn to do: use psychodynamic theories (like those from Freud and Erikson) to explain development<\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/05\/19191150\/theories.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-3581\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2019\/05\/19191150\/theories-300x300.png\" alt=\"Graphic of two heads, question marks coming out of one head and lightbulbs from the other\" width=\"399\" height=\"399\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Many people sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, \u201cNow we are going to look at some theories&#8230;\u201d may elicit some blank stares or yawns. But, don&#8217;t tune out quite yet! Theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; they are proposed explanations for the \u201chow\u201d and \u201cwhys\u201d of development. In this first section, we&#8217;ll examine some of the most persistent theories, developed by Sigmund Freud over a hundred years ago. While some of Freud&#8217;s ideas have since been debunked, others have lasted and continue to shape the way we think about development.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe theories as they relate to lifespan development<\/li>\n<li>Describe the historical foundations leading to the development of theories about lifespan development<\/li>\n<li>Describe Freud&#8217;s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\n<li>Describe Erikson&#8217;s eight stages of psychosocial development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Understanding Theories<\/h2>\n<p>A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well.\u00a0It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies.\u00a0Think of theories are guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that required assembly.\u00a0The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.<\/p>\n<p>Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples.\u00a0Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. \u00a0Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application.\u00a0\u00a0Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.<\/p>\n<h3>What is a theory?<\/h3>\n<p>In l<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ifespan development,<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">\u00a0we need to relying on a systematic approach to understanding behavior, based on observable events and the scientific method. There are so many different observations about childhood, adulthood, and development in general that we use theories to help organize all of the different observable events or variables. A theory is a simplified explanation of the world that attempts to explain how variables interact with each other. It can take complex, interconnected issues and narrow it down to the essentials. This enables developmental theorists and researchers to analyze the problem in greater depth.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_2906\" style=\"width: 402px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/24112904\/CNX_Psych_02_01_Method.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2906\" class=\"wp-image-2906\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/24112904\/CNX_Psych_02_01_Method-300x258.jpg\" alt=\"flowchart showing that a theory is used to form a hypothesis, the hypothesis leads to research, research leads to observation, which leads to the creation or modification of a theory, then back around.\" width=\"392\" height=\"338\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2906\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Theories are often revisited and tested through experiments and research.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Two key concepts\u00a0in the scientific approach are theory\u00a0and hypothesis. A <strong>theory<\/strong> is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that\u00a0can be used to make predictions about future observations. A <strong>hypothesis<\/strong> is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests.\u00a0In essence, lifespan theories explain observable events in a meaningful way. They are not as specific as hypotheses, which are so specific that we use them to make predictions in research. Theories offer more general explanations about behavior and events.<\/p>\n<p>Think of theories are guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that required assembly.\u00a0The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.<\/p>\n<p>Theories can be developed using induction, in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples.\u00a0Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. \u00a0Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them.<\/p>\n<p>People who study lifespan development approach the it from different perspectives. Each perspective encompasses one or more theories\u2014the broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Throughout psychological history and still in present day, three key issues remain among which developmental theorists often disagree. Particularly oft-disputed is the role of early experiences on later development in opposition to current behavior reflecting present experiences\u2013namely the <em>passive verses active issue<\/em>. Likewise, whether or not development is best viewed as occurring in stages or rather as a gradual and cumulative process of change has traditionally been up for debate \u2013 a question of <em>continuity versus discontinuity.<\/em> Further, the role of heredity and the environment in shaping human development is a much contested topic of discussion \u2013 also referred to as <em>nature\/nurture debate<\/em>. We&#8217;ll examine each of these issues in more detail throughout the course.<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16511\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16511&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16511\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>History of Developmental Psychology<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_2834\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/14023401\/752px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2834\" class=\"wp-image-2834 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/14023401\/752px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909-300x239.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of early psychologists, including Freud and Hall.\" width=\"300\" height=\"239\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2834\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Some major players in the early development of psychology. Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, S\u00e1ndor Ferenczi, at: Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. Date: September 1909.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The scientific study of children began in the late nineteenth century, and blossomed in the early twentieth century as pioneering psychologists sought to uncover the secrets of human behavior by studying its development. Developmental psychology made an early appearance in a more literary form, however. William Shakespeare had his melancholy character, &#8220;Jacques&#8221; (in As You Like It), articulate the &#8220;seven ages of man,&#8221; which included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood.<\/p>\n<p>Three early scholars, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Charles Darwin proposed theories of human behavior that are the &#8220;direct ancestors of the three major theoretical traditions&#8221; of developmental psychology today(Vasta et al, 1998, p. 10). Locke, a British empiricist, adhered to a strict environmentalist position, that the mind of the newborn as a tabula rasa (&#8220;blank slate&#8221;) on which knowledge is written through experience and learning. Rousseau, a Swiss philosopher who spent much of his life in France, proposed a nativistic model in his famous novel <em>Emile<\/em>, in which development occurs according to innate processes progressing through three stages: Infans (infancy), puer (childhood), and adolescence. Rousseau detailed some of the necessary progression through these stages in order to develop into an ideal citizen. Although some aspects of his text were controversial, Rousseau&#8217;s ideas were strongly influential on educators at the time. Finally, the work of Darwin, the British biologist famous for his theory of evolution, led others to suggest that development proceeds through evolutionary recapitulation, with many human behaviors having their origins in successful adaptations in the past as &#8220;ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.&#8221;<\/p>\n<h4>G. Stanley Hall<\/h4>\n<p>Darwin&#8217;s theories greatly influenced\u00a0G. Stanley Hall, who believed that children developed over their lifetime much in the same way that a species evolved throughout time. His interests focused on childhood development, adolescence, and evolutionary theory. His major contributions to the field are that he taught the first courses in child development, several of his students becoming leading researchers in the field, and he established scientific journals for the publication of child development research. He was also the first president of the\u00a0American Psychological Association.<\/p>\n<h4>James Mark Baldwin<\/h4>\n<p>Another early contributor to the study of development was James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934), a Princeton educated American philosopher and psychologist who did quantitative and experimental research on infant development. He made important contributions to early psychology, psychiatry, and to the theory of evolution. Baldwin wrote essays such as &#8220;Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes&#8221;, which made a vivid impression on Jean Piaget\u00a0(who later developed the most popular theory of cognitive development) and Lawrence Kohlberg (who developed a theory about moral judgment and development).<\/p>\n<h4>John B. Watson<\/h4>\n<p>The 20th century marked the formation of qualitative distinctions between children and adults. When John Watson wrote the book <em>Psychological Care of Infant and Child<\/em> in 1928, he sought to add clarification surrounding behaviorists views on child care and development. Watson was the founder of the field of behaviorism, which emphasized the role of nurture, or the environment, in human development. He believed, based on Locke&#8217;s environmentalist position, that human behavior can be understood in terms of experiences and learning. He believed that all behaviors are learned, or conditioned, as evidenced by his famous &#8220;Little Albert&#8221; study, in which he conditioned an infant to fear a white rat. In Watson&#8217;s book on care of the infant and child, Watson explained that children should be treated as a young adult\u2014with respect, but also without emotional attachment. In the book, he warned against the inevitable dangers of a mother providing too much love and affection. Watson explained that love, along with everything else as the behaviorist saw the world, is conditioned. Watson supported his warnings by mentioning invalidism, saying that society does not overly comfort children as they become young adults in the real world, so parents should not set up these unrealistic expectations. His book (obviously) became highly criticized, but was still influential in promoting more research into early childhood behavior and development.<\/p>\n<h4>Sigmund Freud<\/h4>\n<p>Another name you are probably familiar with who was influential in the study human development is Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud&#8217;s model of &#8220;psychosexual development&#8221; grew out of his psychoanalytic approach to human personality and psychopathology. In sharp contrast to the objective approach espoused by Watson, Freud based his model of child development on his own and his patients&#8217; recollections of their childhood. He developed a stage model of development in which the libido, or sexual energy, of the child focuses on different &#8220;zones&#8221; or areas of the body as the child grows to adulthood. Freud&#8217;s model is an &#8220;interactionist&#8221; one, since he believed that although the sequence and timing of these stages is biologically determined, successful personality development depends on the experiences the child has during each stage. Although the details of Freud&#8217;s developmental theory have been widely criticized, his emphasis on the importance of early childhood experiences, prior to five years of age, has had a lasting impact.<\/p>\n<h4>Arnold Gesell<\/h4>\n<p>Arnold Gesell, a student of G. Stanley Hall, carried out the first large-scale detailed study of children&#8217;s behavior, authoring several books on the topic in the 1920s, 30s, and 40s. His research revealed consistent patterns of development, supporting his view that human development depends on biological &#8220;maturation,&#8221; with the environment providing only minor variations in the age at which a skill might emerge but never affecting the sequence or pattern. Gesell&#8217;s research produced norms, such as the order and the normal age range in which a variety of early behaviors such as sitting, crawling, and walking emerge. In conducting his studies, Gesell developed sophisticated observational techniques, including one-way viewing screens and recording methods that did not disturb the child.<\/p>\n<h4>Jean Piaget<\/h4>\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is considered one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth century, and his stage theory of cognitive development revolutionized our view of children&#8217;s thinking and learning. His work inspired more research than any other theorist, and many of his concepts are still foundational to developmental psychology. His interest lay in children&#8217;s knowledge, their thinking, and the qualitative differences in their thinking as it develops. Although he called his field &#8220;genetic epistemology,&#8221; stressing the role of biological determinism, he also assigned great importance to experience. In his view, children &#8220;construct&#8221; their knowledge through processes of &#8220;assimilation,&#8221; in which they evaluate and try to understand new information, based on their existing knowledge of the world, and &#8220;accommodation,&#8221; in which they expand and modify their cognitive structures based on new experiences.<\/p>\n<p>Modern developmental psychology generally focuses on how and why certain modifications throughout an individual\u2019s life-cycle (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) and human growth change over time.\u00a0There are many theorists that have made, and continue to make, a profound contribution to this area of psychology, amongst whom is Erik Erikson \u00a0who developed a model of eight stages of psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and this would affect their behaviors. In this module, we&#8217;ll examine some of these major theories and contributions made my prominent psychologists.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16512\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16512&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16512\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Psychodynamic Theory<\/h2>\n<h3>The Psychodynamic Perspective: A Focus on the Inner Person<\/h3>\n<h4>Freud and Psychoanalysis<\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_562\" style=\"width: 303px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-562\" class=\"wp-image-562\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052126\/Freud.jpeg\" alt=\"Freud photograph. He has a stern look on his face, a short, white beard, and a cigar in his hand.\" width=\"293\" height=\"293\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-562\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Sigmund Freud.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>We begin with\u00a0Sigmund Freud, one of the most well-known pioneers and early\u00a0founders of psychology who\u00a0has been a very influential figure in the area of development. His <strong>psychodynamic perspective<\/strong> of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1930s and beyond.\u00a0His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years.\u00a0We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states.\u00a0There is a growing body of literature addressing resiliency in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O&#8217;Grady and Metz, 1987).\u00a0Freud stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas.\u00a0Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.<\/p>\n<h4>Background<\/h4>\n<p>Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who was trained in neurology and asked to work with patients suffering from hysteria, a conditioned marked my uncontrollable emotional outbursts, fears, and anxiety that had puzzled physicians for centuries.\u00a0He was also asked to work with women who suffered from physical symptoms and forms of paralysis which had no organic causes.\u00a0During that time, many people believed that certain individuals were genetically inferior and thus more susceptible to mental illness.\u00a0Women were thought to be genetically inferior and thus prone to illnesses such as hysteria, which had previously been attributed to a detached womb traveling around in the body (the word &#8220;hyster&#8221; means &#8220;uterus&#8221; in Greek).<\/p>\n<p>However, after World War I, many soldiers came home with problems similar to hysteria.\u00a0This called into questions the idea of genetic inferiority as a cause of mental illness. Freud began working with hysterical patients and discovered that when they began to talk about some of their life experiences, particularly those that took place in early childhood, their symptoms disappeared.\u00a0This led him to suggest the first purely psychological explanation for physical problems and mental illness.\u00a0What he proposed was that unconscious motives, desires, fears, and anxieties drive our actions.\u00a0When upsetting memories or thoughts begin to find their way into our consciousness, we develop defenses to shield us from these painful realities, called defense mechanisms.\u00a0Freud believed that many mental illnesses are a result of a person\u2019s inability to accept reality.<\/p>\n<p>Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior.\u00a0In our natural state, we are biological beings.\u00a0We are driven primarily by instincts.\u00a0During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0The type of parenting the child receives has a very powerful impact on the child\u2019s personality development.\u00a0We will explore this idea further in our discussion of psychosexual development, but first, we must identify the parts of the &#8220;self&#8221; in Freud&#8217;s model, or in other words, what constitutes a person&#8217;s personality and makes us who we are.<\/p>\n<h3>Theory of Personality\/Self<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_2898\" style=\"width: 258px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2898\" class=\"wp-image-2898 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23134437\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Iceberg-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"Picture of an iceberg showing the id fully under the water, with the ego mostly sticking out of the water, and the superego also largely underwater, with a portion above water. Underwater is unconscious territory, while above water is conscious.\" width=\"248\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2898\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. According to\u00a0Freud&#8217;s\u00a0model of the psyche, the\u00a0id\u00a0is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the\u00a0superego\u00a0operates as a moral conscience, and the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the\u00a0id\u00a0and the\u00a0superego.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As adults, our personality or self consists of three main parts: the <strong>id<\/strong>, the <strong>ego,\u00a0<\/strong>and the <strong>superego<\/strong>.\u00a0The id,\u00a0the basic, primal part of the personality, is the part of the self with which we are born.\u00a0It consists of the biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives.\u00a0It is the part of us that wants\u00a0immediate gratification.\u00a0Later in life, it comes to house our deepest, often unacceptable desires, such as sex and aggression.\u00a0It operates under the pleasure principle which means that the criteria for determining whether something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. An infant is all id.<\/p>\n<p>Next, the ego begins to develop during the first three years of a child&#8217;s life. Finally, the superego. The\u00a0superego<strong>,\u00a0<\/strong>the last component of personality to develop,\u00a0starts to emerge around the age of five\u00a0when a child interacts\u00a0more and more with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or\u2014when we fall short of the ideal\u2014feelings of guilt.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the\u00a0ego\u00a0is the rational part of our personality. It\u2019s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on what Freud called the \u201creality principle.\u201d The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.<\/p>\n<p>The id and superego are in constant conflict because the id wants instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the ego\u2019s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id\u2019s desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to\u00a0<strong>neurosis<\/strong>\u00a0(a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing ego defense mechanisms).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16513\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16513&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16513\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16514\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16514&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16514\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Theory of Psychosexual Development<\/h3>\n<p>Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood and that childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage even as adults.<\/p>\n<p>In each\u00a0<strong>psychosexual stage <\/strong>of development, the child\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Table 1).<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A five column table outlines Freud\u2019s stages of psychosexual development. From left to right the columns are labeled, \u201cStage, Age (years), Erogenous Zone, Major Conflict, and Adult Fixation Example.\u201d The contents of the five rows are as follows. The first row contains \u201coral; 0\u20131; mouth; weaning off breast or bottle; and smoking, overeating.\u201d The second row contains \u201canal; 1\u20133; anus; toilet training; and neatness, messiness.\u201d The third row contains \u201cphallic; 3\u20136; genitals; Oedipus\/Electra complex; and vanity, overambition.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201clatency; 6\u201312; none; none; and none.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cgenital; 12+; genitals; none; and none.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Freud\u2019s Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Erogenous Zone<\/th>\n<th>Major Conflict<\/th>\n<th>Adult Fixation Example<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Oral<\/td>\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\n<td>Mouth<\/td>\n<td>Weaning off breast or bottle<\/td>\n<td>Smoking, overeating<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Anal<\/td>\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\n<td>Anus<\/td>\n<td>Toilet training<\/td>\n<td>Neatness, messiness<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Phallic<\/td>\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\n<td>Oedipus\/Electra complex<\/td>\n<td>Vanity, overambition<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Latency<\/td>\n<td>6\u201312<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Genital<\/td>\n<td>12+<\/td>\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>For about the first year of life, the infant is in the <strong>oral stage<\/strong> of psychosexual development.\u00a0The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification.\u00a0A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well.\u00a0Psychologically, the infant is all id. The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation.\u00a0If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further.\u00a0However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may stay stuck in the oral stage.\u00a0As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive talking.\u00a0These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.<\/p>\n<p>During the <strong>anal stage<\/strong>, which coincides with toddlerhood and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed.\u00a0There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out.\u00a0The child is learning a sense of self-control.\u00a0The ego is being developed. If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control.\u00a0He may become fixated in this stage or \u201canally retentive\u201d\u2014fearful of letting go.\u00a0Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others.\u00a0If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be \u201canal expulsive\u201d or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>phallic stage<\/strong> occurs during the preschool years (ages 3-5) when the child has a new biological challenge to face. The child will experience the Oedipus complex which refers to a child&#8217;s\u00a0unconscious\u00a0sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and hatred for the same-sex parent. For example, boys experiencing the Oedipus complex will unconsciously want to replace their father as a companion to their mother but then realize that the father is much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, his father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risk losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms, thereby learning the role of males in his society. From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply. In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a &#8220;phallic male&#8221; or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure), by seducing women and beating up men.<\/p>\n<p>Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage\u2014the Electra complex. The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud\u2019s contemporary, Carl Jung (Jung &amp; Kerenyi, 1963). A little girl experiences the Electra complex in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with her mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences &#8220;penis envy&#8221;). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and\u00a0will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female. \u00a0However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a &#8220;castrating female&#8221; who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life. The formation of the superego takes place during the dissolution of the Oedipus and Electra complex.<\/p>\n<p>During middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the <strong>latency stage,<\/strong> focusing their attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, they will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.<\/p>\n<p>The final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the <strong>genital stage<\/strong>.\u00a0From adolescence throughout adulthood, a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into a safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the id with the superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges.\u00a0Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges.<\/p>\n<p>Freud\u2019s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To understand the origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with the political, social, and cultural influences of Freud\u2019s day in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a climate of sexual repression, combined with limited understanding and education surrounding human sexuality heavily influenced Freud\u2019s perspective. Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional states (neuroses) stemmed from the suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges. For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations of patients\u2019 experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to better understand Freud&#8217;s theory of psychosexual development.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=3935242&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=375&amp;video_id=hsie2EuNCNI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-r1dq78oh-hsie2EuNCNI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"520px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16515\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16515&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16515\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Defense mechanisms<\/h3>\n<p>Freud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego\u2019s inability to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. When this happens, Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various protective measures known as <strong>defense mechanisms<\/strong>. When certain events, feelings, or yearnings cause anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce that anxiety. To do that, the individual\u2019s unconscious mind uses ego\u00a0defense mechanisms, unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_2899\" style=\"width: 906px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2899\" class=\"wp-image-2899\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3707\/2014\/09\/23140837\/CNX_Psych_11_02_Defense.jpg\" alt=\"A chart defines eight defense mechanisms and gives an example of each. \u201cDenial\u201d is defined as \u201cRefusing to accept real events because they are unpleasant.\u201d The example given is \u201cKaila refuses to admit she has an alcohol problem although she is unable to go a single day without drinking excessively.\u201d \u201cDisplacement\u201d is defined as \u201cTransferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target.\u201d The example given is \u201cDuring lunch at a restaurant, Mark is angry at his older brother, but does not express it and instead is verbally abusive to the server.\u201d \u201cProjection\u201d is defined as \u201cAttributing unacceptable desires to others.\u201d The example given is \u201cChris often cheats on her boyfriend because she suspects he is already cheating on her.\u201d \u201cRationalization\u201d is defined as \u201cJustifying behaviors by substituting acceptable reasons for less-acceptable real reasons.\u201d The example given is \u201cKim failed his history course because he did not study or attend class, but he told his roommates that he failed because the professor didn\u2019t like him.\u201d \u201cReaction Formation\u201d is defined as \u201cReducing anxiety by adopting beliefs contrary to your own beliefs.\u201d The example given is \u201cNadia is angry with her coworker Beth for always arriving late to work after a night of partying, but she is nice and agreeable to Beth and affirms the partying as cool.\u201d \u201cRegression\u201d is defined as \u201cReturning to coping strategies for less mature stages of development.\u201d The example given is \u201cAfter failing to pass his doctoral examinations, Giorgio spends days in bed cuddling his favorite childhood toy.\u201d \u201cRepression\u201d is defined as \u201cSupressing painful memories and thoughts.\u201d The example given is \u201cLaShea cannot remember her grandfather\u2019s fatal heart attack, although she was present.\u201d \u201cSublimation\u201d is defined as \u201cRedirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels.\u201d The example given is \u201cJerome\u2019s desire for revenge on the drunk driver who killed his son is channeled into a community support group for people who\u2019ve lost loved ones to drunk driving.\" width=\"896\" height=\"1056\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2899\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. Defense mechanisms are unconscious protective behaviors that work to reduce anxiety.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Defense mechanisms emerge to help a person distort reality so that the truth is less painful.\u00a0Defense mechanisms include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Denial\u2014<\/strong>not accepting the truth or lying to oneself.\u00a0Thoughts such as \u201cit won\u2019t happen to me\u201d or \u201cyou\u2019re not leaving\u201d or \u201cI don\u2019t have a problem with alcohol\u201d are examples.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Displacement\u2014<\/strong>taking out frustrations on a safer target.\u00a0A person who is angry at a boss may take out their frustration at others when driving home or at a spouse upon arrival.<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Projection\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others.\u00a0If someone is frightened, for example, they accuse someone else of being afraid.<\/li>\n<li><strong>R<\/strong><strong>ationalization\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud (Freud&#8217;s daughter who continued in her father&#8217;s path of psychoanalysis). Rationalization involves a cognitive distortion of &#8220;the facts&#8221; to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We often do it on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Reaction formation\u2014<\/strong>a defense mechanism in which a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.\u00a0An example of this might be someone who dislikes or fears people of another race acting overly nice to people of that race.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Regression\u2014<\/strong>going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one\u2019s childhood behaviors.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Repression\u2014<\/strong>to push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other words, think about something else).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Sublimation\u2014<\/strong>transforming unacceptable urges into more socially acceptable behaviors.\u00a0For example, a teenager who experiences strong sexual urges uses exercise to redirect those urges into more socially acceptable behavior.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video explains more about each of the defense mechanisms.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"PSYCHOTHERAPY - Anna Freud\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v80Nd8w1uts?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16516\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16516&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16516\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective<\/h3>\n<p>Originating in the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes (for example, wishes and fears of which we\u2019re not fully aware), and contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality.\u00a0When reading Freud\u2019s theories, it is important to remember that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no such thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his education, which can help us understand some of the controversies over his theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and theorize the workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we associate with modern psychology.\u00a0The psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since Freud\u2019s time, encompassing all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of conscious and unconscious drives and forces within the person, and between the different structures of the personality (id, ego, superego).<\/p>\n<p>Freud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons.\u00a0One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically.\u00a0How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood?\u00a0Are there other variables that might better explain development?\u00a0Because\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">psychodynamic theories are difficult to prove wrong, evaluating those theories, in general, is difficult in that we cannot make definite predictions about a given individual&#8217;s behavior using the theories.\u00a0<\/span>The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed.\u00a0Freud focused on the darker side of human nature and suggested that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Others make the criticism that the psychodynamic approach is too deterministic, relating to the idea that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will, thereby\u00a0leaving little room for the idea of free will.<span style=\"text-align: initial;\"><span style=\"font-size: 1rem;\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Generative Society: Caring for Future Generations \u2013 January 1, 2004 by Ed De St Aubin (Author), Ed St Aubin (Editor), Henry Wade Rogers Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Psychology Department Dan P McAdams PhD (Editor), Tae-Chang Kim (Editor)\" id=\"return-footnote-2837-1\" href=\"#footnote-2837-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Freud\u2019s work has been extremely influential, and its impact extends far beyond psychology (several years ago\u00a0<em>Time<\/em>\u00a0magazine selected Freud as one of the most important thinkers of the 20th century). Freud\u2019s work has been not only influential but quite controversial as well. As you might imagine, when Freud suggested in 1900 that much of our behavior is determined by psychological forces of which we\u2019re largely unaware\u2014that we literally don\u2019t know what\u2019s going on in our own minds\u2014people were (to put it mildly) displeased (Freud, 1900\/1953a). When he suggested in 1905 that we humans have strong sexual feelings from a very early age and that some of these sexual feelings are directed toward our parents, people were more than displeased\u2014they were outraged (Freud, 1905\/1953b). Few theories in psychology have evoked such strong reactions from other professionals and members of the public.<\/p>\n<p>So why do we study Freud?\u00a0As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices.\u00a0Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development.\u00a0Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud\u2019s views.\u00a0Controversy notwithstanding, no competent psychologist, or student of psychology, can ignore psychodynamic theory. It is simply too important for psychological science and practice and continues to play an important role in a wide variety of disciplines within and outside psychology (for example, developmental psychology, social psychology, sociology, and neuroscience; see\u00a0Bornstein, 2005,\u00a02006;\u00a0Solms &amp; Turnbull, 2011).<\/p>\n<h2>Psychosocial Theory<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_564\" style=\"width: 243px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-564\" class=\"wp-image-564 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2014\/09\/18052451\/Erikson.png\" alt=\"Profile photo of an old Erik Erikson\" width=\"233\" height=\"292\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-564\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 6.<\/strong> Erik Erikson.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Erikson&#8217;s Psychosocial Theory<\/h3>\n<p>Now, let&#8217;s turn to a less controversial psychodynamic theorist, the father of developmental psychology, Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a student of Freud\u2019s and expanded on his theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968).<\/p>\n<h3>Background<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm132804624\">As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik\u00a0<span class=\"no-emphasis\">Erikson<\/span>\u00a0met Freud\u2019s daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual\u2019s personality develops throughout the lifespan\u2014a departure from Freud\u2019s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud\u2019s emphasis on erogenous zones. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which includes a conflict or developmental task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.<\/p>\n<h3>Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/h3>\n<p>Erikson believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id.\u00a0We make conscious choices in life, and these choices focus on meeti<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">ng certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones.\u00a0Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Erikson&#8217;s theory is based on what he calls the <em>epigenetic principle<\/em>, encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages. This biological unfolding in relation to our socio-cultural settings is done in\u00a0stages of psychosocial development, where &#8220;progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Chapter 3: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 92.\" id=\"return-footnote-2837-2\" href=\"#footnote-2837-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">Erikson\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">described eight stages, each with\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our life span as we face these challenges. We will discuss each of these stages in greater detail whe<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">n we discuss each of these life stages throughout the course. Here is an overview of each stage:<\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><b>Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)<\/b>\u2014From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child&#8217;s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of\u00a0anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.<\/li>\n<li><b>Autonomy vs. Shame (Will)<\/b>\u2014As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)<\/b>\u2014Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child&#8217;s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-2\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)<\/b>\u2014During the elementary school stage (ages 7\u201312), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don\u2019t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. <sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-3\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)<\/b>\u2014In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of\u00a0<em>identity vs. role confusion.\u00a0<\/em>According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas,\u00a0set\u00a0goals, and attempt to discover their adult selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of\u00a0problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to find themselves as adults.<sup id=\"cite_ref-:1_34-5\" class=\"reference\"><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)<\/b>\u2014People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/li>\n<li><b>Generativity vs. Stagnation (Care)<\/b>\u2014When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/li>\n<li><b>Integrity vs. Despair (Wisdom)<\/b>\u2014From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They may face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<table id=\"Table_11_03_01\" class=\"mt-responsive-table\" style=\"height: 335px; width: 1027px;\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\">\n<caption><em><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/em><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\" scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\" scope=\"col\">Approximate Age (years)<\/th>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\" scope=\"col\">Virtue: Developmental Task<\/th>\n<th class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\" scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">1<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">0\u20131<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">2<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">1\u20133<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Will: Autonomy vs. Shame\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Sense of independence in many tasks develops<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">3<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">3\u20136<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">4<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">7\u201311<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">5<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">12\u201318<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">6<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">19\u201339<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">7<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">40\u201364<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation<\/b><b><br \/>\n<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 42.2656px;\">8<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 81.0156px;\">65+<\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 181.016px;\"><b>Wisdom: Integrity vs. Despair\u00a0<\/b><\/td>\n<td class=\"mt-align-center\" style=\"width: 669.766px;\">Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Strengths and weaknesses of Erikson&#8217;s theory<\/h3>\n<p>Erikson&#8217;s eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the lifespan.\u00a0Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once or at different times of life. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy.\u00a0Erikson\u2019s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development.\u00a0His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all.\u00a0For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.<\/p>\n<p>By and large, Erikson&#8217;s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is very significant and has received great recognition. However, like Freud&#8217;s theory, it has been criticized for focusing on more men than women and also for its vagueness, making it difficult to test rigorously.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to learn more about each of Erikson&#8217;s stages.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Erikson&#39;s psychosocial development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/SIoKwUcmivk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16517\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16517&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16517\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_16518\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=16518&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_16518\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>anal stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting<\/dd>\n<dt>defense mechanisms:<\/dt>\n<dd>psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings<\/dd>\n<dt>ego:<\/dt>\n<dd>the part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id\u2019s desires in a rational way<\/dd>\n<dt>eight stages of psychosocial development:<\/dt>\n<dd>Erikson&#8217;s stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame\/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair<\/dd>\n<dt>genital stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood<\/dd>\n<dt>hypothesis:<\/dt>\n<dd>a testable prediction<\/dd>\n<dt>id:<\/dt>\n<dd>the part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification<\/dd>\n<dt>latency stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant<\/dd>\n<dt>neurosis:<\/dt>\n<dd>a tendency to experience negative emotions<\/dd>\n<dt>oral stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification<\/dd>\n<dt>phallic stage:<\/dt>\n<dd>the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child&#8217;s libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone<\/dd>\n<dt>psychodynamic perspective:<\/dt>\n<dd>the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people&#8217;s awareness and control<\/dd>\n<dt>psychosexual stages:<\/dt>\n<dd>Freud&#8217;s oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages<\/dd>\n<dt>psychosocial theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>the theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development<\/dd>\n<dt>superego:<\/dt>\n<dd>the part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave<\/dd>\n<dt>theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2837\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Psychodynamic Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sonja Ann Miller and Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Background on Erikson. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:sa5_X4f8@5\/Neo-Freudians-Adler-Erikson-Jung-and-Horney\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:sa5_X4f8@5\/Neo-Freudians-Adler-Erikson-Jung-and-Horney<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.5<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Question. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: jambulboy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-2519654\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-2519654\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark 1909. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Information on Stanley Hall. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G._Stanley_Hall\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G._Stanley_Hall<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Emilie, or On Education. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emile,_or_On_Education\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emile,_or_On_Education<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Information on James Mark Baldwin. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Mark_Baldwin\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Mark_Baldwin<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>John B. Watson. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_B._Watson\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_B._Watson<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Section on the history of developmental psychology. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: New World Encyclopedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.newworldencyclopedia.org\/entry\/Developmental_psychology\">http:\/\/www.newworldencyclopedia.org\/entry\/Developmental_psychology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Information on theory and hypothesis. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-the-scientific-process-replace-content\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-the-scientific-process-replace-content\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Applied History of Psychology Controversies. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/Applied_History_of_Psychology\/Controversies\">https:\/\/en.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/Applied_History_of_Psychology\/Controversies<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective iceberg image; Defense Mechanisms image. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Pe\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Pe<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><li>Freud and the psychodynamic perspective; section on ego and superego; introduction to psychosexual development; paragraph on the electra complex. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-perspective\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-perspective\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Oedipus Complex. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oedipus_complex#cite_note-www.credoreference.com-23\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oedipus_complex#cite_note-www.credoreference.com-23<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Introduction to Defense Mechanisms. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Perspective\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Perspective<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><li>The Psychodynamic Perspective. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Robert Bornstein. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Adelphi University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16\">https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Erikson&#039;s Stages of Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Boundless. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/oer2go.org\/mods\/en-boundless\/www.boundless.com\/psychology\/textbooks\/boundless-psychology-textbook\/human-development-14\/theories-of-human-development-70\/erikson-s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-269-12804\/index.html\">http:\/\/oer2go.org\/mods\/en-boundless\/www.boundless.com\/psychology\/textbooks\/boundless-psychology-textbook\/human-development-14\/theories-of-human-development-70\/erikson-s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-269-12804\/index.html<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>epigenetics. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epigenetics\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epigenetics<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Freud&#039;s Psychosexual Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Saylor Academy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hsie2EuNCNI\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hsie2EuNCNI<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>PSYCHOTHERAPY - Anna Freud. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: The School of Life. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v80Nd8w1uts\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v80Nd8w1uts<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Erikson&#039;s psychosocial development. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Khan Academy Medicine. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Freud Image. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Max Halberstadt. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sigmund_Freud#\/media\/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sigmund_Freud#\/media\/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Erik Erikson. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson#\/media\/File:Erik_Erikson.png\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson#\/media\/File:Erik_Erikson.png<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-2837-1\">The Generative Society: Caring for Future Generations \u2013 January 1, 2004 by Ed De St Aubin (Author), Ed St Aubin (Editor), Henry Wade Rogers Professor of Psychology and Chair of the Psychology Department Dan P McAdams PhD (Editor), Tae-Chang Kim (Editor) <a href=\"#return-footnote-2837-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-2837-2\">Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. Chapter 3: W.W. Norton and Company. p. 92. <a href=\"#return-footnote-2837-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Question\",\"author\":\"jambulboy\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/images\/id-2519654\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Psychodynamic Theories\",\"author\":\"Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark 1909\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sonja Ann Miller and Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Information on Stanley Hall\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G._Stanley_Hall\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Emilie, or On Education\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emile,_or_On_Education\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Information on James Mark Baldwin\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Mark_Baldwin\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"John B. Watson\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_B._Watson\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Section on the history of developmental psychology\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"New World Encyclopedia\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.newworldencyclopedia.org\/entry\/Developmental_psychology\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Information on theory and hypothesis\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-the-scientific-process-replace-content\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Applied History of Psychology Controversies\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/Applied_History_of_Psychology\/Controversies\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Freud Image\",\"author\":\"Max Halberstadt\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sigmund_Freud#\/media\/File:Sigmund_Freud_LIFE.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective iceberg image; Defense Mechanisms image\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Pe\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Freud and the psychodynamic perspective; section on ego and superego; introduction to psychosexual development; paragraph on the electra complex\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/freud-and-the-psychodynamic-perspective\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Oedipus Complex\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oedipus_complex#cite_note-www.credoreference.com-23\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Defense Mechanisms\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:KuB6N-0u@5\/Freud-and-the-Psychodynamic-Perspective\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Psychodynamic Perspective\",\"author\":\"Robert Bornstein\",\"organization\":\"Adelphi University\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-psychodynamic-perspective#reference-16\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Freud\\'s Psychosexual Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Saylor Academy\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hsie2EuNCNI\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"PSYCHOTHERAPY - Anna Freud\",\"author\":\"The School of Life\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v80Nd8w1uts\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Erik Erikson\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erik_Erikson#\/media\/File:Erik_Erikson.png\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Background on Erikson\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:sa5_X4f8@5\/Neo-Freudians-Adler-Erikson-Jung-and-Horney\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.5\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Erikson\\'s Stages of Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Boundless\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/oer2go.org\/mods\/en-boundless\/www.boundless.com\/psychology\/textbooks\/boundless-psychology-textbook\/human-development-14\/theories-of-human-development-70\/erikson-s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-269-12804\/index.html\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"epigenetics\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epigenetics\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Erikson\\'s psychosocial development\",\"author\":\"Khan Academy Medicine\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=SIoKwUcmivk\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"d3073a79-38f2-48f2-abf3-1a81922d1f49","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-2837","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":141,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2837","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2837\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6439,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2837\/revisions\/6439"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/141"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2837\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2837"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=2837"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=2837"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-lifespandevelopment5\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=2837"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}