{"id":1284,"date":"2015-09-15T18:45:30","date_gmt":"2015-09-15T18:45:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/intropsychmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1284"},"modified":"2021-04-01T20:02:16","modified_gmt":"2021-04-01T20:02:16","slug":"lifespan-theories-cognitive-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-psychology-1\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/","title":{"raw":"Cognitive Development","rendered":"Cognitive Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain key developments for each of Piaget\u2019s stages of cognitive development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development and how it applies to learning<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development<\/h2>\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"168\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Piaget.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Jean Piaget in his later years.\" width=\"168\" height=\"280\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Jean Piaget.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nJean Piaget (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure 1). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.\r\n\r\nPiaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. <strong>Schemata<\/strong> are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: <strong>assimilation<\/strong> is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. <strong>Accommodation<\/strong> describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/Jt3-PIC2nCs[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<strong>Video 1.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong><em>Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development <\/em>explained.\r\n\r\nFor example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake\u2019s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake\u2019s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4468\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4473\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nLike Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.\r\n<table summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Description<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental issues<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>0\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td>Sensorimotor<\/td>\r\n<td>World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\r\n<td>Object permanence\r\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Preoperational<\/td>\r\n<td>Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td>Pretend play\r\nEgocentrism\r\nLanguage development<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td>Concrete operational<\/td>\r\n<td>Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\r\n<td>Conservation\r\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>12\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td>Formal operational<\/td>\r\n<td>Formal operations\r\nUtilize abstract reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td>Abstract logic\r\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe first stage is the <strong>sensorimotor<\/strong> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <strong>object permanence<\/strong>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nPlease take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children\u2019s ability to understand object permanence:\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/NCdLNuP7OA8[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4471\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4469\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nPiaget\u2019s second stage is the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em>operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em>pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nThis video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gnArvcWaH6I[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDuring this stage, we also expect children to display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point\u00a0during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory-of-mind<\/strong> (TOM).\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch IT<\/h3>\r\nPiaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v4oYOjVDgo0?enablejsapi=1[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4472\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4470\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nPiaget\u2019s third stage is the <strong>concrete operational stage<\/strong>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nChildren in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <strong>reversibility<\/strong>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4474\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the <strong>formal operational stage<\/strong>, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.\r\n\r\n<section>\r\n<h2>Beyond Formal Operational Thought<\/h2>\r\nAs with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).\r\n\r\nAccording to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.\r\n\r\nIt seems that once we reach adulthood our problem-solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.\r\n\r\n<section>&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4475\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\"><strong style=\"color: #077fab;font-size: 1.15em\">Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory<\/strong><\/section><img class=\"wp-image-81 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4912\/2019\/10\/15225055\/LifespanDevelopment43.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"250\" height=\"345\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Figure 3.8.1<\/strong>. Lev Vygotsky, founder of the sociocultural theory, which emphasizes contextual factors in cognitive development<\/p>\r\nModern social learning theories stem from the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (Kozulin, 1990). Vygotsky\u2019s ideas are most recognized for identifying the role of social interactions and culture in the development of higher-order thinking skills. His theory is especially valuable for the insights it provides about the dynamic \u201cinterdependence between individual and social processes in the construction of knowledge\u201d (John-Steiner &amp; Mahn, 1996, p. 192). Vygotsky\u2019s views are often considered primarily as cognitive development theories, focusing on qualitative changes in the development of thought, language, and higher-order thinking skills. Although Vygotsky\u2019s intent was mainly to understand higher psychological processes in children, his ideas have many implications and practical applications for learners of all ages.\r\n\r\nThree themes are often identified with Vygotsky\u2019s ideas of sociocultural learning: (1) human development and learning originate in social, historical, and cultural interactions, (2) use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediate development of higher mental functions, and (3) learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development. While we discuss these ideas separately, they are closely interrelated, non-hierarchical, and connected.\r\n\r\nVygotsky\u2019s\u00a0<strong>sociocultural theory<\/strong>\u00a0emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. Vygotsky contended that thinking has social origins, social interactions play a critical role, especially in the development of higher-order thinking skills, and cognitive development cannot be fully understood without considering the social and historical context within which it is embedded. He explained, \u201cEvery function in the child\u2019s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)\u201d (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). \u00a0It is through working with others on a variety of tasks that a learner adopts socially shared experiences and associated effects and acquires useful strategies and knowledge (Scott &amp; Palincsar, 2013).\r\n\r\nRogoff (1990) refers to this process as guided participation, where a learner actively acquires new culturally valuable skills and capabilities through a meaningful, collaborative activity with an assisting, more experienced other. It is critical to notice that these culturally mediated functions are viewed as being embedded in sociocultural activities rather than being self-contained. Development is a \u201ctransformation of participation in a sociocultural activity,\u201d not a transmission of discrete cultural knowledge or skills (Matusov, 2015, p. 315).\r\n<div>\r\n<h4>Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\nVygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person has not only a set of abilities but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the\u00a0proper guidance from others.\u00a0He believed that through guided participation known as\u00a0<strong>scaffolding<\/strong>, with a teacher or capable peer, a child could learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the\u00a0<strong>zone of proximal <\/strong><strong>development<\/strong>. While Piaget\u2019s ideas of cognitive development assume that development through certain stages is biologically determined, originates in the individual, and precedes cognitive complexity, Vygotsky presents a different view in which learning drives development.\u00a0The idea of learning driving development, rather than being determined by the developmental level of the learner, fundamentally changes our understanding of the learning process and has significant instructional and educational implications (Miller, 2011).\r\n\r\n<img class=\"wp-image-668 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4912\/2020\/05\/02165209\/zpd-300x223.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"480\" height=\"357\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Figure 3.8.2.<\/strong> Model of zone of proximal development.<\/p>\r\nHave you ever taught a child to perform a task?\u00a0Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food.\u00a0Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you throughout the process.\u00a0You assisted them when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go.\u00a0This\u00a0is scaffolding.\u00a0Educators have also adopted this approach to teaching.\u00a0Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance.\r\n\r\nThis difference in assumptions has significant implications for the design and development of learning experiences. If we believe as Piaget did that development precedes learning, then we will make sure that new concepts and problems are not introduced until learners have developed innate capabilities to understand them. On the other hand, if we believe as Vygotsky did that learning drives development and that development occurs as we learn a variety of concepts and principles, recognizing their applicability to new tasks and new situations, then our instructional design will look very different.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/-p_-0n2f35o\r\n\r\n<strong>Video 3.8.1.\u00a0<\/strong><em>Vygotsky's Sociocultural Development\u00a0<\/em>explains the influence of the social environment on cognition and how more knowledgeable others help us learn within our zone of proximal development.Glossary\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp50657472\"><strong>assimilation:\u00a0<\/strong>adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm158126288\"><strong>accommodation:\u00a0<\/strong>adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp34931984\"><strong>concrete operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong>third stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp13489808\"><strong>conservation:\u00a0<\/strong>idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm103834160\"><strong>egocentrism:\u00a0<\/strong>preoperational child\u2019s difficulty in taking the perspective of others<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp25107232\"><strong>formal operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong>final stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm76004144\"><strong>object permanence:\u00a0<\/strong>idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp17154592\"><strong>preoperational stage:\u00a0<\/strong>second stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically<\/div>\r\n<div><strong>reversibility:<\/strong>\u00a0understanding that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition\r\n<strong>schema:\u00a0<\/strong>(plural = schemata) concept (mental model) that is used to help us categorize and interpret information\r\n<strong>sensorimotor stage:\u00a0<\/strong>first stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior<\/div>\r\n<div><strong>theory-of-mind:\u00a0<\/strong>the understanding that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from our\u00a0own<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain key developments for each of Piaget\u2019s stages of cognitive development<\/li>\n<li>Explain Vygotsky&#8217;s Zone of Proximal Development and how it applies to learning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Piaget&#8217;s Theory of Cognitive Development<\/h2>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 178px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Piaget.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Jean Piaget in his later years.\" width=\"168\" height=\"280\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Jean Piaget.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure 1). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.<\/p>\n<p>Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. <strong>Schemata<\/strong> are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: <strong>assimilation<\/strong> is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. <strong>Accommodation<\/strong> describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Piaget&#39;s stages of cognitive development | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Jt3-PIC2nCs?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><strong>Video 1.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong><em>Piaget&#8217;s Stages of Cognitive Development <\/em>explained.<\/p>\n<p>For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake\u2019s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake\u2019s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4468\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4468&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4468\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4473\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4473&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4473\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Description<\/th>\n<th>Developmental issues<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>0\u20132<\/td>\n<td>Sensorimotor<\/td>\n<td>World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\n<td>Object permanence<br \/>\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Preoperational<\/td>\n<td>Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\n<td>Pretend play<br \/>\nEgocentrism<br \/>\nLanguage development<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\n<td>Concrete operational<\/td>\n<td>Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\n<td>Conservation<br \/>\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>12\u2013<\/td>\n<td>Formal operational<\/td>\n<td>Formal operations<br \/>\nUtilize abstract reasoning<\/td>\n<td>Abstract logic<br \/>\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The first stage is the <strong>sensorimotor<\/strong> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <strong>object permanence<\/strong>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.<\/p>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Please take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children\u2019s ability to understand object permanence:<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/NCdLNuP7OA8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>In Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4471\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4471&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4471\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4469\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4469&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4469\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s second stage is the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em>operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em>pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<\/p>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>This video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"A typical child on Piaget&#39;s conservation tasks\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gnArvcWaH6I?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>During this stage, we also expect children to display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point\u00a0during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory-of-mind<\/strong> (TOM).<\/p>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch IT<\/h3>\n<p>Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.<\/p>\n<p>https:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0%3Fenablejsapi%3D1<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4472\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4472&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4472\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4470\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4470&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4470\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s third stage is the <strong>concrete operational stage<\/strong>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <strong>reversibility<\/strong>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4474\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4474&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4474\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the <strong>formal operational stage<\/strong>, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.<\/p>\n<section>\n<h2>Beyond Formal Operational Thought<\/h2>\n<p>As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).<\/p>\n<p>According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem-solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.<\/p>\n<section>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4475\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4475&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4475\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\"><strong style=\"color: #077fab;font-size: 1.15em\">Vygotsky\u2019s Sociocultural Theory<\/strong><\/section>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-81 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4912\/2019\/10\/15225055\/LifespanDevelopment43.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"250\" height=\"345\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Figure 3.8.1<\/strong>. Lev Vygotsky, founder of the sociocultural theory, which emphasizes contextual factors in cognitive development<\/p>\n<p>Modern social learning theories stem from the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (Kozulin, 1990). Vygotsky\u2019s ideas are most recognized for identifying the role of social interactions and culture in the development of higher-order thinking skills. His theory is especially valuable for the insights it provides about the dynamic \u201cinterdependence between individual and social processes in the construction of knowledge\u201d (John-Steiner &amp; Mahn, 1996, p. 192). Vygotsky\u2019s views are often considered primarily as cognitive development theories, focusing on qualitative changes in the development of thought, language, and higher-order thinking skills. Although Vygotsky\u2019s intent was mainly to understand higher psychological processes in children, his ideas have many implications and practical applications for learners of all ages.<\/p>\n<p>Three themes are often identified with Vygotsky\u2019s ideas of sociocultural learning: (1) human development and learning originate in social, historical, and cultural interactions, (2) use of psychological tools, particularly language, mediate development of higher mental functions, and (3) learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development. While we discuss these ideas separately, they are closely interrelated, non-hierarchical, and connected.<\/p>\n<p>Vygotsky\u2019s\u00a0<strong>sociocultural theory<\/strong>\u00a0emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. Vygotsky contended that thinking has social origins, social interactions play a critical role, especially in the development of higher-order thinking skills, and cognitive development cannot be fully understood without considering the social and historical context within which it is embedded. He explained, \u201cEvery function in the child\u2019s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)\u201d (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). \u00a0It is through working with others on a variety of tasks that a learner adopts socially shared experiences and associated effects and acquires useful strategies and knowledge (Scott &amp; Palincsar, 2013).<\/p>\n<p>Rogoff (1990) refers to this process as guided participation, where a learner actively acquires new culturally valuable skills and capabilities through a meaningful, collaborative activity with an assisting, more experienced other. It is critical to notice that these culturally mediated functions are viewed as being embedded in sociocultural activities rather than being self-contained. Development is a \u201ctransformation of participation in a sociocultural activity,\u201d not a transmission of discrete cultural knowledge or skills (Matusov, 2015, p. 315).<\/p>\n<div>\n<h4>Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<p>Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person has not only a set of abilities but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the\u00a0proper guidance from others.\u00a0He believed that through guided participation known as\u00a0<strong>scaffolding<\/strong>, with a teacher or capable peer, a child could learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the\u00a0<strong>zone of proximal <\/strong><strong>development<\/strong>. While Piaget\u2019s ideas of cognitive development assume that development through certain stages is biologically determined, originates in the individual, and precedes cognitive complexity, Vygotsky presents a different view in which learning drives development.\u00a0The idea of learning driving development, rather than being determined by the developmental level of the learner, fundamentally changes our understanding of the learning process and has significant instructional and educational implications (Miller, 2011).<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-668 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4912\/2020\/05\/02165209\/zpd-300x223.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"480\" height=\"357\" \/><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Figure 3.8.2.<\/strong> Model of zone of proximal development.<\/p>\n<p>Have you ever taught a child to perform a task?\u00a0Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food.\u00a0Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you throughout the process.\u00a0You assisted them when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go.\u00a0This\u00a0is scaffolding.\u00a0Educators have also adopted this approach to teaching.\u00a0Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance.<\/p>\n<p>This difference in assumptions has significant implications for the design and development of learning experiences. If we believe as Piaget did that development precedes learning, then we will make sure that new concepts and problems are not introduced until learners have developed innate capabilities to understand them. On the other hand, if we believe as Vygotsky did that learning drives development and that development occurs as we learn a variety of concepts and principles, recognizing their applicability to new tasks and new situations, then our instructional design will look very different.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Vygotsky sociocultural development | Individuals and Society | MCAT | Khan Academy\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/-p_-0n2f35o?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><strong>Video 3.8.1.\u00a0<\/strong><em>Vygotsky&#8217;s Sociocultural Development\u00a0<\/em>explains the influence of the social environment on cognition and how more knowledgeable others help us learn within our zone of proximal development.Glossary<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp50657472\"><strong>assimilation:\u00a0<\/strong>adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm158126288\"><strong>accommodation:\u00a0<\/strong>adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp34931984\"><strong>concrete operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong>third stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp13489808\"><strong>conservation:\u00a0<\/strong>idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm103834160\"><strong>egocentrism:\u00a0<\/strong>preoperational child\u2019s difficulty in taking the perspective of others<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp25107232\"><strong>formal operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong>final stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm76004144\"><strong>object permanence:\u00a0<\/strong>idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp17154592\"><strong>preoperational stage:\u00a0<\/strong>second stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically<\/div>\n<div><strong>reversibility:<\/strong>\u00a0understanding that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition<br \/>\n<strong>schema:\u00a0<\/strong>(plural = schemata) concept (mental model) that is used to help us categorize and interpret information<br \/>\n<strong>sensorimotor stage:\u00a0<\/strong>first stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior<\/div>\n<div><strong>theory-of-mind:\u00a0<\/strong>the understanding that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from our\u00a0own<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1284\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification and adaptation, addition of video link. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Lifespan Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Edod3PQm@5\/Lifespan-Theories\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Edod3PQm@5\/Lifespan-Theories<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Geert Stienissen. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>A typical child on Piaget&#039;s conservation tasks. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: munakatay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Piaget&#039;s Mountains Task. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: UofMNCYFC. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Lifespan Theories\",\"author\":\"OpenStax\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Edod3PQm@5\/Lifespan-Theories\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Piaget - 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