{"id":1614,"date":"2016-10-03T17:51:58","date_gmt":"2016-10-03T17:51:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&p=1614"},"modified":"2021-07-10T19:26:14","modified_gmt":"2021-07-10T19:26:14","slug":"reading-behaviorism","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-psychology-1\/chapter\/reading-behaviorism\/","title":{"raw":"Contemporary Approaches to Psychology","rendered":"Contemporary Approaches to Psychology"},"content":{"raw":"https:\/\/youtu.be\/3q8Fb4rC84k\r\n\r\nVideo 1.<\/strong>\u00a0There are several major contemporary approaches to psychology (behavioral,\u00a0cognitive,\u00a0psychodynamic, evolutionary, biological, humanistic, sociocultural\/contextual). These approaches are the basis for the vast majority of psychological theories, thus they will come up again and again throughout this course and throughout every psychology course you may take in the future.\r\n

Behavioral Psychology<\/h2>\r\nEarly work in the field of behavior was conducted by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849\u20131936). Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human-produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus. The reflex Pavlov worked with was salivation in response to the presence of food. The salivation reflex could be elicited using a second stimulus, such as a specific sound, that was presented in association with the initial food stimulus several times. Once the response to the second stimulus was \u201clearned,\u201d the food stimulus could be omitted. Pavlov\u2019s \u201cclassical conditioning\u201d is only one form of learning behavior studied by behaviorists.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"152\"]\"A Figure 1<\/strong>. John B. Watson is known as the father of behaviorism within psychology.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nJohn B. Watson (1878\u20131958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University. While Wundt and James were concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that the study of consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism<\/strong>. A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism. Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, \u201cI believe that everything important in psychology (except \u2026 such matters as involve society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.\u201d\r\n\r\nBehaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, and its influence can still be felt today (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially experimentation. In addition, it is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behavior modification is commonly used in classroom settings. Behaviorism has also led to research on environmental influences on human behavior.\r\n\r\nB. F. Skinner (1904\u20131990) was an American psychologist. Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior. As a part of his research, Skinner developed a chamber that allowed the careful study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment. This device, known as an operant conditioning chamber (or more familiarly, a Skinner box), has remained a crucial resource for researchers studying behavior (Thorne & Henley, 2005).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]\"Photograph Figure 2<\/strong>. (a) B. F. Skinner is famous for his research on operant conditioning. (b) Modified versions of the operant conditioning chamber, or Skinner box, are still widely used in research settings today. (credit a: modification of work by \"Silly rabbit\"\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Skinner box is a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the positive reinforcement or punishment.\r\n\r\nSkinner\u2019s focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that has waned somewhat since the growth of research in cognitive psychology. Despite this, conditioned learning is still used in human behavioral modification. Skinner\u2019s two widely read and controversial popular science books about the value of operant conditioning for creating happier lives remain as thought-provoking arguments for his approach (Greengrass, 2004).\r\n\r\nDuring the early 20th century, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism and psychoanalysis. However, some psychologists were uncomfortable with what they viewed as limited perspectives being so influential to the field. They objected to the pessimism and determinism (all actions driven by the unconscious) of Freud. They also disliked the reductionism, or simplifying nature, of behaviorism. Behaviorism is also deterministic at its core, because it sees human behavior as entirely determined by a combination of genetics and environment. Some psychologists began to form their own ideas that emphasized personal control, intentionality, and a true predisposition for \u201cgood\u201d as important for our self-concept and our behavior. Thus, humanism emerged.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2669\r\n\r\n
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Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism<\/h2>\r\nHumanism<\/strong> is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Two of the most well-known proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (O\u2019Hara, n.d.). Abraham Maslow (1908\u20131970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. Although this concept will be discussed in more detail in a later section, a brief overview will be provided here.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]\"Maslow's Figure 3.\u00a0<\/strong>Maslow's hierarchy of needs emphasizes that basic needs for food and safety need to be met before higher-level needs can serve as motivators.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMaslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior. According to Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential. Obviously, the focus on the positive aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is evident (Thorne & Henley, 2005).\r\n\r\nHumanistic psychologists rejected, on principle, the research approach based on reductionist experimentation in the tradition of the physical and biological sciences, because it missed the \u201cwhole\u201d human being. Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there was an insistence on a humanistic research program. This program has been largely qualitative (not measurement-based), but there exist a number of quantitative research strains within humanistic psychology, including research on happiness, self-concept, meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008).\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2671\r\n\r\nCarl Rogers (1902\u20131987) was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people. Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what he or she might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues (Thorne & Henley, 2005).\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2672\r\n\r\nHumanism has been influential to psychology as a whole. Both Maslow and Rogers are well-known names among students of psychology (you will read more about both men later in this text), and their ideas have influenced many scholars. Furthermore, Rogers\u2019 client-centered approach to therapy is still commonly used in psychotherapeutic settings today (O\u2019hara, n.d.).\r\n

The Cognitive Revolution<\/h2>\r\n
Behaviorism\u2019s emphasis on objectivity and focus on external behavior had pulled psychologists\u2019 attention away from the mind for a prolonged period of time. The early work of the humanistic psychologists redirected attention to the individual human as a whole, and as a conscious and self-aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry. This particular perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003). By 1967, Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology<\/em>, which served as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement. Chomsky (1928\u2013), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology\u2019s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior (Miller, 2003).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]\"A Figure 4<\/strong>. Noam Chomsky was very influential in beginning the cognitive revolution. In 2010, this mural honoring him was put up in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (credit: Robert Moran)[\/caption]\r\n

European psychology had never really been as influenced by behaviorism as had American psychology; and thus, the cognitive revolution helped reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and their American counterparts. Furthermore, psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others. This interdisciplinary approach often was referred to as the cognitive sciences, and the influence and prominence of this particular perspective resonates in modern-day psychology (Miller, 2003).<\/p>\r\n\r\n

Cognitive Psychology<\/h3>\r\n

Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in that it is characterized by both<\/em> of the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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  1. It accepts the use of the scientific method and generally rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation, unlike phenomenological methods such as Freudian psychoanalysis.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire, and motivation), unlike behaviorist psychology.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

    Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms, heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in cognitive psychology include perception, memory, categorization, knowledge representation, numerical cognition, language, and thinking.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2674\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n

    Summary of the History\u00a0of Psychology<\/h2>\r\n

    Before the time of Wundt and James, questions about the mind were considered by philosophers. However, both Wundt and James helped create psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Wundt was a structuralist<\/em>, which meant he believed that our cognitive experience was best understood by breaking that experience into its component parts. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection.<\/p>\r\n

    William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a proponent of functionalism<\/em>. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism\u2019s environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well.<\/p>\r\n

    Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was absolutely critical to understand conscious behavior. This was especially true for individuals that he saw who suffered from various hysterias and neuroses. Freud relied on dream analysis, slips of the tongue, and free association as means to access the unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology for several decades.<\/p>\r\n

    One of the most influential schools of thought within psychology\u2019s history was behaviorism. Behaviorism focused on making psychology an objective science by studying overt behavior and deemphasizing the importance of unobservable mental processes. John Watson is often considered the father of behaviorism, and B. F. Skinner\u2019s contributions to our understanding of principles of operant conditioning cannot be underestimated.<\/p>\r\n

    As behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory took hold of so many aspects of psychology, some began to become dissatisfied with psychology\u2019s picture of human nature. Thus, a humanistic movement within psychology began to take hold. Humanism focuses on the potential of all people for good. Both Maslow and Rogers were influential in shaping humanistic psychology.<\/p>\r\n

    During the 1950s, the landscape of psychology began to change. A science of behavior began to shift back to its roots of focus on mental processes. The emergence of neuroscience and computer science aided this transition. Ultimately, the cognitive revolution took hold, and people came to realize that cognition was crucial to a true appreciation and understanding of behavior.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Early Schools of Psychology: Still Active and Advanced Beyond Early Ideas<\/caption>\r\n
    School of Psychology<\/th>\r\nDescription<\/th>\r\nEarliest Period<\/th>\r\nHistorically Important People<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
    Psychodynamic Psychology<\/td>\r\nFocuses\u00a0on the role of the unconscious and childhood experiences in affecting conscious behavior.<\/td>\r\nVery late 19th to Early 20th Century<\/td>\r\nSigmund Freud, Erik Erikson<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Behaviorism<\/td>\r\nFocuses on observing and controlling behavior through what is observable. Puts\u00a0an emphasis\u00a0on learning and conditioning.<\/td>\r\nEarly 20th Century<\/td>\r\nIvan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Humanistic Psychology<\/td>\r\nEmphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans and rejects that psychology should focus on problems and disorders.<\/td>\r\n1950s<\/td>\r\nAbraham Maslow, Carl Rogers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Cognitive\u00a0Psychology<\/td>\r\nFocuses not just on behavior, but on on mental processes and internal mental states.<\/td>\r\n1960s[footnote]Although Piaget's research on cognition began in the 1920s, cognitive psychology did not become mainstream until the 1960s.[\/footnote]<\/td>\r\nUlric Neisser, Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n