{"id":315,"date":"2015-02-06T23:15:43","date_gmt":"2015-02-06T23:15:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ospsych\/?post_type=chapter&p=315"},"modified":"2021-03-19T20:02:48","modified_gmt":"2021-03-19T20:02:48","slug":"attitudes-and-persuasion","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hvcc-psychology-1\/chapter\/attitudes-and-persuasion\/","title":{"raw":"Attitudes and Persuasion","rendered":"Attitudes and Persuasion"},"content":{"raw":"\"Scrabble<\/a>\r\n\r\nAttitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or object and typically are positive or negative. Our attitudes and beliefs are influenced not only by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. An internal form of attitude change is cognitive dissonance or the tension we experience when our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are in conflict. In order to reduce dissonance, individuals can change their behavior, attitudes, or cognitions, or add a new cognition. Consider the example case of a\u00a0person who has adopted the attitude that they will no longer eat high-fat food, but eat a high-fat doughnut anyway. They might attempt to alleviate this cognitive dissonance through one of the four cognitive reduction techniques:\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Change behavior or cognition (\"I will not eat any more of this doughnut\")<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Justify behavior or cognition by changing the conflicting cognition (\"I'm allowed to cheat every once in a while\")<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Justify behavior or cognition by adding new cognitions (\"I'll spend 30 extra minutes at the gym to work this off\")<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Ignore or deny any information that conflicts with existing beliefs (\"This doughnut is not high in fat\")<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nOther ways that attitudes are affected include external forces of persuasion, such as advertising. The features of advertising that influence our behaviors include the source, message, and audience. There are two primary routes to persuasion: the central route to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade potential consumers; the peripheral route uses positive association with cues such as beauty, fame, and positive emotions.\r\n\r\nSocial psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can influence our behaviors. Now we turn to how the power of the situation can influence our attitudes and beliefs. Attitude<\/strong> is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. We have attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might pick up in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies. Typically, attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). And, they have three components: an affective component<\/em> (feelings), a behavioral component<\/em> (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component<\/em> (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960).\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/cDq1_R-J51w\r\n\r\nVideo 1.\u00a0<\/strong>Component of Attitudes.\u00a0<\/em>\r\n\r\nFor example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should result in positive feelings toward recycling (such as \u201cIt makes me feel good to recycle\u201d or \u201cI enjoy knowing that I make a small difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills\u201d). Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behavior: You actually recycle as often as you can. Finally, this attitude will be reflected in favorable thoughts (for example, \u201cRecycling is good for the environment\u201d or \u201cRecycling is the responsible thing to do\u201d).\r\n\r\nOur attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. Like our behavior, our attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures, but they can be consciously changed by our own free will. In this section, we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs.\r\n
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    Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4541\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4542\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4543\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4544\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4545\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    <\/section>\r\n

    Persuasion<\/h1>\r\n
    In the previous section, we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads us to change our attitudes, behaviors, and\/or cognitions to make them consonant. Persuasion<\/strong> is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors? What communications do you receive that attempt to persuade you to change your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors?\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"408\"]\"A Figure 4<\/strong>. We encounter attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not limited to formal advertising; we are confronted with it throughout our everyday world. (credit: Robert Couse-Baker)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n
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    Yale Attitude Change Approach<\/h2>\r\nThe topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World War, Carl Hovland extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called the Yale attitude change approach<\/strong>, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source<\/em> of a persuasive message, the content<\/em> of the message, and the characteristics of the audience<\/em> will influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953).\r\n\r\nFeatures of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness of the speaker (Eagly & Chaiken, 1975; Petty, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic, and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less credible speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than less attractive speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long-term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale & Albarrac\u00edn, 2004).\r\n\r\nFeatures of the message itself that affect persuasion include subtlety (the quality of being important, but not obvious) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Walster & Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than one side) (Crowley & Hoyer, 1994; Igou & Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine & Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994; Miller & Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend to be more persuasive (Miller & Campbell, 1959).\r\n\r\nFeatures of the audience that affect persuasion are attention (Albarrac\u00edn & Wyer, 2001; Festinger & Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18\u201325 are more persuadable than older adults.\r\n\r\n<\/section>
    \r\n

    Elaboration Likelihood Model<\/h2>\r\nAn especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). The elaboration likelihood model<\/strong> considers the variables of the attitude change approach\u2014that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral (Figure 5).\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]\"A Figure 5<\/strong>. Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nThe central route is logic-driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument\u2019s worthiness. For example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car\u2019s safety features and fuel economy. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change.\r\n\r\nThe central route<\/strong> to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information. From an advertiser\u2019s perspective, what products would be best sold using the central route to persuasion? What audience would most likely be influenced to buy the product? One example is buying a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer\u2019s quality and features such as processing speed and memory capacity.\r\n\r\nThe peripheral route<\/strong> is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product\u2019s quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a product with a clear brand name or brand identity in a TV show or movie to promote the product (Gupta & Lord, 1998). For example, one season of the reality series American Idol<\/em> prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to persuasion? Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.\r\n
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    Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4550\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4551\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>
    \r\n

    Foot-in-the-door Technique<\/h2>\r\nResearchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in selling products and changing people\u2019s attitudes, ideas, and behaviors. One effective strategy is the foot-in-the-door technique (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, & Saari, 1974). Using the foot-in-the-door technique<\/strong>, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item. The foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to post a small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more likely to agree to put a large sign in their yard than people who declined the first request (Figure 6). Research on this technique also illustrates the principle of consistency (Cialdini, 2001): Our past behavior often directs our future behavior, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have committed to a behavior.\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]\"Photograph Figure 6<\/strong>. With the foot-in-the-door technique, a small request such as (a) wearing a campaign button can turn into a large request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your yard. (credit a: modification of work by Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of work by \"shutterblog\"\/Flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nA common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission (for example, extending curfew by a half hour) and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller request increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce with the later, larger request.\r\n\r\nHow would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you an expensive product? For example, say that you are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best data plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger purchase\u2014the three-year extended warranty. After agreeing to the smaller request, you are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You may have encountered this if you have bought a car. When salespeople realize that a buyer intends to purchase a certain model, they might try to get the customer to pay for many or most available options on the car.\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section>
    \r\n
    \r\n

    Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4552\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>
    \r\n
    \r\n

    Coercive Persuasion<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>Coercive persuasion<\/b>\u00a0refers to social influences capable of producing substantial behavior and attitude change through the use of\u00a0coercive tactics and\u00a0persuasion, via interpersonal and group-based influences.\r\n\r\nThe term was coined by Edgar Schein\u00a0in 1961 in relation to his study of Chinese POWs 'indoctrination. According to Schein,\u00a0the essence of coercive persuasion, ..., is to produce ideological and behavioral changes in a fully conscious, mentally intact individual.<\/i>\u00a0Martyn Carruthers has the following definition:\u00a0\"Coercive persuasion attempts to force people to change beliefs, ideas, attitudes or behaviors using psychological pressure, undue influence, threats, anxiety, intimidation and\/or stress.\"<\/i>\r\n\r\nPeople are most susceptible to coercive persuasion under specific conditions. First, when a person is under physical or emotional duress. The distress may be caused by the perpetrator of the coercion; however, a person already under distress may be a target for coercion. Second, the perpetrator reduces a p<\/span>erson\u2019s problems to one simple explanation, repeated often. Repetition of an idea gives the perception of legitimacy, and to provide a simple explanation may be attractive to someone already distressed. Third, the perpetrator\u00a0<\/span>offers unconditional love, acceptance, and attention. This may be especially welcomed by someone that may not feel belongingness in other areas of their life. After some time, the person starts to form a n<\/span>ew identity based on this belongingness. The identity may be as a member of a relationship or a group and may even come at the loss of other aspects of their identity.\u00a0 The perpetrator also tries to control the information that the person can access. This may mean feeding the person information to influence their attitudes and behaviors, or limiting outside information that could cause the person to question information provided by the perpetrator. Finally, the person is more likely to susceptible to coercive persuasion when they feel entrapped--unable to leave the situation, relationship, or group.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n
    \r\n
    \r\n
    \r\n

    Glossary<\/h3>\r\n
    \r\n
    attitude:\u00a0<\/strong>evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    central route persuasion:\u00a0<\/strong>logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument\u2019s worthiness<\/div>\r\n
    cognitive dissonance:\u00a0<\/strong>psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person\u2019s behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one\u2019s positive self-perception<\/div>\r\n
    foot-in-the-door technique:\u00a0<\/strong>persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item<\/div>\r\n
    peripheral route persuasion:\u00a0<\/strong>one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message<\/div>\r\n
    persuasion:\u00a0<\/strong>process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4851\r\n\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"

    \"Scrabble<\/a><\/p>\n

    Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or object and typically are positive or negative. Our attitudes and beliefs are influenced not only by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. An internal form of attitude change is cognitive dissonance or the tension we experience when our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are in conflict. In order to reduce dissonance, individuals can change their behavior, attitudes, or cognitions, or add a new cognition. Consider the example case of a\u00a0person who has adopted the attitude that they will no longer eat high-fat food, but eat a high-fat doughnut anyway. They might attempt to alleviate this cognitive dissonance through one of the four cognitive reduction techniques:<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Change behavior or cognition (“I will not eat any more of this doughnut”)<\/li>\n
    2. Justify behavior or cognition by changing the conflicting cognition (“I’m allowed to cheat every once in a while”)<\/li>\n
    3. Justify behavior or cognition by adding new cognitions (“I’ll spend 30 extra minutes at the gym to work this off”)<\/li>\n
    4. Ignore or deny any information that conflicts with existing beliefs (“This doughnut is not high in fat”)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Other ways that attitudes are affected include external forces of persuasion, such as advertising. The features of advertising that influence our behaviors include the source, message, and audience. There are two primary routes to persuasion: the central route to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade potential consumers; the peripheral route uses positive association with cues such as beauty, fame, and positive emotions.<\/p>\n

      Social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can influence our behaviors. Now we turn to how the power of the situation can influence our attitudes and beliefs. Attitude<\/strong> is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. We have attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might pick up in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies. Typically, attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). And, they have three components: an affective component<\/em> (feelings), a behavioral component<\/em> (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component<\/em> (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960).<\/p>\n