Three Steven Pinker Essays

These three pieces–two by Pinker and the other about his ideas–are important in establishing the ways language is a living, changing human institution.

“The Moral Instinct” is available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/13/magazine/13Psychology-t.html

“7 Writing Style Lessons We Learned From Linguist Steven Pinker” is available at: https://www.wbur.org/radioboston/2014/09/30/pinker-harvard-writing

–If any of these works’ links doesn’t operate properly, you can do an author or title search to find it.

Thursday, Sep. 06, 2007 Words Don’t Mean What They Mean” By Steven Pinker

In the Movie Tootsie, The character played by Dustin Hoffman is disguised as a woman and is speaking to a beautiful young actress played by Jessica Lange. During a session of late-night girl talk, Lange’s character says, “You know what I wish? That a guy could be honest enough to walk up to me and say, ‘I could lay a big line on you, but the simple truth is I find you very interesting, and I’d really like to make love to you.’ Wouldn’t that be a relief?” Later in the movie, a twist of fate throws them together at a cocktail party, this time with Hoffman’s character dressed as a man. The actress doesn’t recognize him, and he tries out the speech on her. Before he can even finish, she throws a glass of wine in his face and storms away. When people talk, they lay lines on each other, do a lot of role playing, sidestep, shilly-shally and engage in all manner of vagueness and innuendo. We do this and expect others to do it, yet at the same time we profess to long for the plain truth, for people to say what they mean, simple as that. Such hypocrisy is a human universal. Sexual come-ons are a classic example. “Would you like to come up and see my etchings?” has been recognized as a double entendre for so long that by 1939, James Thurber could draw a cartoon of a hapless man in an apartment lobby saying to his date, “You wait here, and I’ll bring the etchings down.” The veiled threat also has a stereotype: the Mafia wiseguy offering protection with the soft sell, “Nice store you got there. Would be a real shame if something happened to it.” Traffic cops sometimes face not-so-innocent questions like, “Gee, Officer, is there some way I could pay the fine right here?” And anyone who has sat through a fund-raising dinner is familiar with euphemistic schnorring like, “We’re counting on you to show leadership.” Why don’t people just say what they mean? The reason is that conversational partners are not modems downloading information into each other’s brains. People are very, very touchy about their relationships. Whenever you speak to someone, you are presuming the two of you have a certain degree of familiarity–which your words might alter. So every sentence has to do two things at once: convey a message and continue to negotiate that relationship. The clearest example is ordinary politeness. When you are at a dinner party and want the salt, you don’t blurt out, “Gimme the salt.” Rather, you use what linguists call a whimperative, as in “Do you think you could pass the salt?” or “If you could pass the salt, that would be awesome.”

Taken literally, these sentences are inane. The second is an overstatement, and the answer to the first is obvious. Fortunately, the hearer assumes that the speaker is rational and listens between the lines. Yes, your point is to request the salt, but you’re doing it in such a way that first takes care to establish what linguists call “felicity conditions,” or the prerequisites to making a sensible request. The underlying rationale is that the hearer not be given a command but simply be asked or advised about one of the necessary conditions for passing the salt. Your goal is to have your need satisfied without treating the listener as a flunky who can be bossed around at will. Warm acquaintances go out of their way not to look as if they are presuming a dominant-subordinate relationship but rather one of equals. It works the other way too. When people are in a subordinate relationship (like a driver with police), they can’t sound as if they are presuming anything more than that, so any bribe must be veiled. Fund raisers, simulating an atmosphere of warm friendship with their donors, also can’t break the spell with a bald businesslike proposition. It is in the arena of sexual relationships, however, that the linguistic dance can be its most elaborate. In an episode of Seinfeld, George is asked by his date if he would like to come up for coffee. He declines, explaining that caffeine keeps him up at night. Later he slaps his forehead: “‘Coffee’ doesn’t mean coffee! ‘Coffee’ means sex!” The moment is funny, but it’s also a reminder of just how carefully romantic partners must always tread. Make too blatant a request, as in Tootsie, and the hearer is offended; too subtle, as in Seinfeld, and it can go over the hearer’s head. In the political arena, miscalibrated speech can lead to more serious consequences than wine in the face or a slap on the forehead. In 1980, Wanda Brandstetter, a lobbyist for the National Organization for Women (NOW), tried to get an Illinois state representative to vote for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) by handing him a business card on which she had written, “Mr. Swanstrom, the offer for help in your election, plus $1,000 for your campaign for the pro-ERA vote.” A prosecutor called the note a “contract for bribery,” and the jury agreed. So how do lobbyists in Gucci Gulch bribe legislators today? They do it with innuendo. If Brandstetter had said, “As you know, Mr. Swanstrom, NOW has a history of contributing to political campaigns. And it has contributed more to candidates with a voting record that is compatible with our goals. These days one of our goals is the ratification of the ERA,” she would have avoided a fine, probation and community service. Indirect speech has a long history in diplomacy too. In the wake of the Six-Day War in 1967, the U.N. Security Council passed its famous Resolution 242, which called for the “withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict.” The wording is ambiguous. Does it mean “some of the territories” or “all of the territories”? In some ways it was best not to ask, since the phrasing was palatable to Israel and its allies only under the former interpretation and to concerned Arab states and their allies only under the latter. Unfortunately, for 40 years partisans have been debating the semantics of Resolution 242, and the Israeli-Arab conflict remains unresolved, to put it mildly. That’s not to say such calculated ambiguity never works for diplomats. After all, the language of an agreement has to be acceptable not just to leaders but to their citizens.

Reasonable leaders might thus come to an understanding between themselves, while each exploits the ambiguities of the deal to sell it to their country’s more bellicose factions. What’s more, diplomats can gamble that times will change and circumstances will bring the two sides together, at which point they can resolve the vagueness amicably. When all else fails, as it often does, nations can sort out their problems without any words at all–and often without fighting either. In these cases, they may fall back on communicating through what’s known as authority ranking, also known as power, status, autonomy and dominance. The logic of authority ranking is “Don’t mess with me.” Its biological roots are in the dominance hierarchies that are widespread in the animal kingdom. One animal claims the right to a contested resource based on size, strength, seniority or allies, and the other animal cedes it when the outcome of the battle can be predicted and both sides have a stake in not getting bloodied in a fight whose winner is a forgone conclusion. Such sword-rattling gestures as a larger military power’s conducting “naval exercises” in the waters off the coast of a weaker foe are based on just this kind of pre-emptive reminder of strength. People often speak of indirect speech as a means of saving face. What we’re referring to is not just a matter of hurt feelings but a social currency with real value. The expressive power of words helps us guard this prized asset, but only as long as we’re careful. Words let us say the things we want to say and also things we would be better off not having said. They let us know the things we need to know, and also things we wish we didn’t. Language is a window into human nature, but it is also a fistula, an open wound through which we’re exposed to an infectious world. It’s not surprising that we sheathe our words in politeness and innuendo and other forms of doublespeak. From The Stuff of Thought by Steven Pinker