{"id":55,"date":"2019-12-12T00:22:16","date_gmt":"2019-12-12T00:22:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/chapter\/approaching-poetry-american-literature-i\/"},"modified":"2019-12-13T16:57:49","modified_gmt":"2019-12-13T16:57:49","slug":"approaching-poetry-american-literature-i","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/chapter\/approaching-poetry-american-literature-i\/","title":{"raw":"Approaching Poetry","rendered":"Approaching Poetry"},"content":{"raw":"<div id=\"reading-approaching-poetry\" class=\"chapter standard\">\r\n<div class=\"ugc chapter-ugc\">\r\n<div>\r\n<h2>Introduction<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">This reading is designed to develop the analytical skills you need for a more in-depth study of literary texts. You will learn about rhythm, alliteration, rhyme, poetic inversion, voice and line lengths and endings. You will examine poems that do not rhyme and learn how to compare and contrast poetry.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">By the end of this reading\u00a0you should be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>have an awareness of the role of analysis to inform appreciation and understanding of poetry;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>be able to identify and discuss the main analytical concepts used in analyzing poetry.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><a><img class=\"alignleft wp-image-308\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002208\/poem-300x235.jpg\" alt=\"Photo looking over the shoulder of a person holding a piece of paper with a typed poem on it. It has been edited in one spot with handwriting\" width=\"211\" height=\"165\" \/><\/a>What is the point of analyzing poetry? One simple answer is that the more we know about anything the more interesting it becomes: listening to music or looking at paintings with someone who can tell us a little about what we hear or see \u2013 or what we\u2019re reading \u2013 is one way of increasing our understanding and pleasure. That may mean learning something about the people who produced the writing, music, painting that we are interested in, and why they produced it. But it may also mean understanding why one particular form was chosen rather than another: why, for example, did the poet choose to write a sonnet rather than an ode, a ballad, or a villanelle? To appreciate the appropriateness of one form, we need to be aware of a range of options available to that particular writer at that particular time. In the same way, we also need to pay attention to word choice. Why was this particular word chosen from a whole range of words that might have said much the same? Looking at manuscript drafts can be really enlightening, showing how much effort was expended in order to find the most appropriate or most evocative expression.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 1<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Click on\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=William+Blake%27s+%E2%80%98Tyger%E2%80%99\">William Blake\u2019s \u201cTyger\u201d<\/a>\u00a0to read and compare the two versions of the poem. The one on the left is a draft; the other is the final published version.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">The most obvious difference between the two is that stanza 4 of the draft does not survive in the published version, and an entirely new stanza, \u201cWhen the stars threw down their spears,\u201d appears in the finished poem. Significantly, this introduces the idea of \u201cthe Lamb,\u201d a dramatic contrast to the tiger, as well as the idea of a \u201che\u201d who made the lamb. One similarity between the draft and final version is that each is made up entirely of unanswered questions. But if you look at the manuscript stanza 5, you can see revisions from \u201cWhat\u201d to \u201cWhere,\u201d and the struggle with the third line, where Blake eventually decided that the idea of an arm was redundant, subsumed in the notions of grasping and clasping. The two rhyme words are decided\u2014grasp\/clasp\u2014but in which order should they come? \u2018Clasp\u2019 is a less aggressive word than \u2018grasp\u2019; \u2018clasp\u2019 is not quite as gentle as an embrace, but it is closer to embracing than \u2018grasp\u2019 is \u2013 so it must be for deliberate effect that we end up with \u2018What dread grasp\/Dare its deadly terrors clasp?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">It is rare to have manuscript drafts to examine in this way, but I hope that this convinces you of the kind of attention writers pay to word choice. Let us take one more example. Think about this first stanza of Thomas Hardy\u2019s \u2018Neutral Tones\u2019 (1867):<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">We stood by a pond that winter day,<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">And the sun was white, as though chidden of God,<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">And a few leaves lay on the starving sod;<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">\u2014They had fallen from an ash, and were gray. (Gibson, 1976, p. 12)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Notice that, in the last line, \u2018oak\u2019 or \u2018elm\u2019 would work just as well as far as the rhythm or music of the line is concerned, but \u2018ash\u2019 has extra connotations of grayness, of something burnt out, dead, finished (\u2018ashes to ashes\u2019, too, perhaps?), all of which contribute to the mood that Hardy conveys in a way that \u2018oak\u2019 or \u2018elm\u2019 wouldn\u2019t.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">To return to my original question then, \u2018what is the point of analyzing poetry?\u2019, one answer is that only an analytical approach can help us arrive at an informed appreciation and understanding of the poem. Whether we like a poem or not, we should be able to recognize the craftsmanship that has gone into making it, the ways in which stylistic techniques and devices have worked to create meaning. General readers may be entirely happy to find a poem pleasing, or unsatisfactory, without stopping to ask why. But\r\n<i>studying<\/i> poetry is a different matter and requires some background understanding of what those stylistic techniques might be, as well as an awareness of constraints and conventions within which poets have written throughout different periods of history.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">You may write poetry yourself. If so, you probably know only too well how difficult it is to produce something you feel really expresses what you want to convey. Writing an essay presents enough problems \u2013 a poem is a different matter, but certainly no easier. Thinking of poetry as a discipline and a craft which, to some extent, can be learned, is another useful way of approaching analysis. After all, how successful are emotional outpourings on paper? Words one might scribble down in the heat of an intense moment may have some validity in conveying that intensity, but in general might they not be more satisfactory if they were later revised? My own feeling is that a remark Wordsworth made 200 years ago has become responsible for a number of misconceptions about what poetry should do. In the Preface to a volume of poems called\r\n<i>Lyrical Ballads<\/i> (1802) he wrote that \u2018all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings\u2019 (Owens and Johnson, 1998, p.85,11.105\u20136). The second time he uses the same phrase he says something that I think is often forgotten today: \u2018poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its origin from emotion <i>recollected in tranquillity\u2019<\/i> (my italics) (ibid., p. 95, ll.557\u20138). Notice the significant time lapse implied there \u2013 the idea that, however powerful or spontaneous the emotion, it needs to be carefully considered before you start writing. He goes on:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"blockquote\">\r\n<p class=\"bl_nonindent\">The emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquillity gradually disappears, and an emotion kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation is gradually reproduced, and does itself actually exist in the mind. In this mood successful composition generally begins.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">You don\u2019t have to agree with Wordsworth about what poetry is or how best to achieve it. (Would you always want a poem to express powerful emotion, for example? I referred to Hardy\u2019s \u2018Neutral Tones\u2019 above, where the whole point is that neither of the two characters described feels anything much at all.) But the idea of contemplation is a useful and important one: it implies distance, perhaps detachment, but above all re-creation, not the thing itself. And if we try to re-create something, we must choose our methods and our words carefully in order to convey what we experienced as closely as possible. A word of warning though: writers do not always aim to express personal experiences; often a persona is created.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">The poet Ezra Pound offered this advice to other poets in an essay written in 1913: \u2018Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something\u2019 (Gray, 1990, p. 56). And in the 1950s William Carlos Williams advised, \u2018cut and cut again whatever you write\u2019. In his opinion, the \u2018test of the artist is to be able to revise without showing a seam\u2019 (loc. cit.). That sewing image he uses appeals to me particularly because it stresses the notion of skilled craftsmanship. Pound and Williams were American, writing long after Wordsworth, but, as you can see, like countless other poets they too reflected very seriously on their own poetic practice. I hope this helps convince you that as students we owe it to the poems we read to give them close analytical attention.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Note About Organization<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">In what follows, section headings like \u2018Rhyme\u2019, \u2018Rhythm\u2019, \u2018Line lengths and line endings\u2019, \u2018Alliteration\u2019, and so on, are intended to act as signposts to help you (if terms are unfamiliar, look them up in the glossary at the end). But these headings indicate only the\u00a0<i>main<\/i> technique being discussed. While it is something we need to attempt, it is very difficult to try to isolate devices in this way \u2013 to separate out, for example, the effects of rhythm from rhyme. This doesn\u2019t mean that we shouldn\u2019t look for particular techniques at work in a poem, but we need to be aware that they will be interdependent and the end product effective or not because of the way such elements work together.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">As you work through this reading, don\u2019t be discouraged if your response to exercises differs from mine. Remember that I had the advantage of choosing my own examples and that I\u2019ve long been familiar with the poems I\u2019ve used. On a daily basis, we probably read much less poetry than we do prose. This is perhaps one reason why many people say they find poetry difficult \u2013 unfamiliarity and lack of practice. But, like anything else, the more effort we put in, the wider the range of experiences we have to draw on. I hope that when you come across an unfamiliar extract in the discussions that follow you might decide to look up the whole poem on your own account, widening your own experience and enjoying it too.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Remember that language changes over the years. I\u2019ve deliberately chosen to discuss poems from different periods, and given dates of first publication. Do keep this in mind, especially as you may find some examples more accessible than others. The idiom and register of a poem written in the eighteenth century will usually be quite different from one written in the twentieth. Different verse forms are popular at different times: while sonnets have been written for centuries, they were especially fashionable in Elizabethan times, for example. Don\u2019t expect to find free verse written much before the twentieth century.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><a><img class=\"alignright wp-image-310\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002209\/editing-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a fountain pen sitting on top of a printed page. Editing marks have been made in red on the page\" width=\"234\" height=\"155\" \/><\/a>If you are working on a poem, it can be a good idea to print it, maybe even enlarge it, and then write anything you find particularly striking in the margins. Use highlighters or colored pens to underline repetitions and link rhyme words. Patterns may well emerge that will help you understand the way the poem develops. Make the poems your own in this way, and then, if you are the kind of person who doesn\u2019t mind writing in books, you can insert notes in a more restrained way in the margins of your book.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">If you prefer to work on your computer, you can do a similar thing by using an annotation tool on your word processor.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Whatever you do, always ask yourself what the effect of a particular technique that you identify is. Noticing an unusual choice of words, a particular rhyme scheme or use of alliteration\u00a0is an important first step, but you need to take another one. Unless you go on to say why what you have noticed is effective, what it contributes to the rest of the poem, how it endorses or changes things, then you are doing less than half the job. Get into the habit of asking yourself questions, even if you can\u2019t always answer them satisfactorily.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Rhythm<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">All speech has rhythm because we naturally stress some words or syllables more than others. The rhythm can sometimes be very regular and pronounced, as in a children\u2019s nursery rhyme \u2013 \u2018JACK and JILL went UP the HILL\u2019 \u2013 but even in the most ordinary sentence the important words are given more stress. In poetry, rhythm is extremely important: patterns are deliberately created and repeated for varying effects. The rhythmical pattern of a poem is called its meter, and we can analyze, or \u2018scan\u2019 lines of poetry to identify stressed and unstressed syllables. In marking the text to show this, the mark \u2018\/\u2019 is used to indicate a stressed syllable, and \u2018x\u2019 to indicate an unstressed syllable. Each complete unit of stressed and unstressed syllables is called a \u2018foot\u2019, which usually has one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">The most common foot in English is known as the iamb, which is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one (x \/). Many words in English are iambic: a simple example is the word \u2018forgot\u2019. When we say this, the stresses naturally fall in the sequence:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/i2hb-y5vkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Iambic rhythm is in fact the basic sound pattern in ordinary English speech. If you say the following line aloud you will hear what I mean:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/7pd8-javkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">The next most common foot is the trochee, a stressed syllable (or \u2018beat\u2019, if you like) followed by an unstressed one (\/x), as in the word<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/jdub-levkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Both the iamb and the trochee have two syllables, the iamb being a \u2018rising\u2019 rhythm and the trochee a \u2018falling\u2019 rhythm. Another two-syllable foot known as the spondee has two equally stressed beats (\/ \/), as in<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/hrtl-zhvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Other important feet have three syllables. The most common are the anapest (x x \/) and the dactyl (\/ x x), which are triple rhythms, rising and falling respectively, as in the words<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/vx0l-mlvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Here are some fairly regular examples of the four main kinds of meter used in poetry. (I have separated the feet by using a vertical slash.) You should say the lines aloud, listening for the stress patterns and noting how the \u2018beats\u2019 fall on particular syllables or words.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Iambic meter<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/zctb-bpvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Trochaic meter<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/4ov7-iwvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Anapestic meter<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/q946-wzvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Dactylic meter<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/rf9s-k3wkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">The other technical point that you need to know about is the way the lengths of lines of verse are described. This is done according to the number of feet they contain, and the names given to different lengths of lines are as follows:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>monometer<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of one foot<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>dimeter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of two feet<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>trimeter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of three feet<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>tetrameter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of four feet<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>pentameter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of five feet<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>hexameter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of six feet<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>heptameter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of seven feet<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>octameter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line of eight feet.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">By far the most widely used of these are the tetrameter and the pentameter. If you look back at the four lines of poetry given as examples above, you can count the feet. You will see that the first one has five feet, so it is an iambic pentameter line; the second one has four feet, so it is a trochaic tetrameter line; the fourth and fifth also have four feet, so are anapestic and dactylic tetrameter lines respectively. Lines do not always have exactly the \u2018right\u2019 number of beats. Sometimes a pentameter line will have an extra \u2018beat\u2019, as in the famous line from\u00a0<i>Hamlet<\/i>, \u2018To be or not to be: that is the question\u2019, where the \u2018tion\u2019 of question is an eleventh, unstressed beat. (It is worth asking yourself why Shakespeare wrote the line like this. Why did he not write what would have been a perfectly regular ten-syllable line, such as \u2018The question is, to be or not to be\u2019?)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Having outlined some of the basic meters of English poetry, it is important to say at once that very few poems would ever conform to a perfectly regular metrical pattern. The effect of that would be very boring indeed: imagine being restricted to using only iambic words, or trying to keep up a regular trochaic rhythm. Poets therefore often include trochaic or anapestic or dactylic words or phrases within what are basically iambic lines, in order to make them more interesting and suggestive, and to retain normal pronunciation. Here is a brief example from Shakespeare to show you what I mean. I have chosen a couple of lines spoken by Rosalind in\r\n<i>As You Like It<\/i>, Act 1, scene 2, and have marked this first version to show you the basic iambic meter:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/ldes-n7wkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">If you say the lines out loud in this regular way you can hear that the effect is very unnatural. Here is one way the lines might be scanned to show how the stresses would fall in speech (though there are other ways of scanning them):<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/rxfh-cbwkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">It must be emphasized that there is no need to feel that you must try to remember all the technical terms I have been introducing here. The purpose has been to help you to become aware of the importance of rhythmic effects in poetry, and it can be just as effective to try to describe these in your own words. The thing to hang on to when writing about the rhythm of a poem is that, as Ezra Pound put it, \u2018Rhythm MUST have meaning\u2019: \u2018It can\u2019t be merely a careless dash off with no grip and no real hold to the words and sense, a tumty tum tumpty tum tum ta\u2019 (quoted in Gray, 1990, p. 56). There are occasions, of course, when a tum-ty-ty-tum rhythm may be appropriate, and \u2018have meaning\u2019. When Tennyson wrote \u2018The Charge of the Light Brigade\u2019, he recreated the sound, pace, and movement of horses thundering along with the emphatic dactyls of \u2018Half a league, half a league, half a league onward \/ Into the valley of death rode the six hundred\u2019. But for a very different example we might take a short two-line poem by Pound himself. This time there is no fixed meter: like much twentieth-century poetry, this poem is in \u2018free verse\u2019. Its title is \u2018In a Station of the Metro\u2019 (the Metro being the Paris underground railway), and it was written in 1916:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\">\r\n<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/qjho-fgwkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Here you can see that the rhythm plays a subtle part in conveying the meaning. The poem is comparing the faces of people in a crowded underground to petals that have fallen on to a wet bough. The rhythm not only highlights the key words in each line, but produces much of the emotional feeling of the poem by slowing down the middle words of the first line and the final three words of the second.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">For our final example of rhythm I\u2019ve chosen a passage from Alexander Pope\u2019s\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i> (1711).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 2<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Take a look at this\u00a0excerpt from\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Criticism\">An Essay on Criticism<\/a>. Read it aloud if you can. Listen to the rhythm, and identify why the rhythm is appropriate to\u00a0the meaning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Pope here uses a basic structure of iambic pentameters with variations, so that the lines sound as if they have a different pace, faster or slower, depending on what is being described. It is not just rhythm that contributes to the effect here: rhyme and alliteration (successive words beginning with the same sound) recreate smooth, rough, slow and swift movement. Rhythm is entirely dependent on word choice, but is also influenced by other interdependent stylistic devices. Pope\u2019s lines enact what they describe simply because of the care that has gone into choosing the right words. It doesn\u2019t matter if you don\u2019t recognise the classical allusions: from the descriptions it is clear that Ajax is a strong man and Camilla is quick and light. If you count the beats of each line, you\u2019ll notice that, in spite of the variety of sound and effect, all have five stresses, except the last, which has six. Strangely enough it is the last and longest line that creates an impression of speed. How is this achieved? Try to hear the lines by reading them again out loud.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">There is really only one way, and that is through the words chosen to represent movement: the repeated \u2018s\u2019 sounds associated with Camilla trip swiftly off the tip of the tongue, whereas Ajax\u2019s lines demand real physical effort from mouth, lips, and tongue. You will get a much stronger sense of this if you form the words in this way, even if you are unable to say them out loud. In an exam, for instance, silent articulation of a poem will help you grasp many poetic techniques and effects that may otherwise be missed.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">This extract from Pope\u2019s\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i>, like the whole poem, is written in rhyming couplets (lines rhyming in pairs). They confer a formal, regular quality to the verse. The punctuation helps to control the way in which we read: notice that there is a pause at the end of each line, either a comma, a semi-colon, or a full stop. This use of the end-stopped line is characteristic of eighteenth-century heroic couplets (iambic pentameter lines rhyming in pairs), where the aim was to reproduce classical qualities of balance, harmony, and proportion.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Get into the habit of looking at rhyme words. Are any of Pope\u2019s rhymes particularly interesting here? One thing I noticed was what is known as poetic inversion. The rhyme \u2018shore\u2019\/\u2019roar\u2019is clearly important to the sound sense of the verse, but the more natural word order (were this ordinary speech) would be \u2018The hoarse rough verse should roar like the torrent\u2019. Had he written this, Pope would have lost the sound qualities of the rhyme \u2018shore\u2019\/\u2019roar\u2019. He would have had to find a word such as \u2018abhorrent\u2019 to rhyme with \u2018torrent\u2019 and the couplet would have had a very different meaning. He would also have lost the rhythm of the line, in spite of the fact that the words are exactly the same.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Before we leave\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i>, did you notice that Pope\u2019s subject in this poem is really poetry itself? Like Wordsworth, Pound, and William Carlos Williams, all of whom I\u2019ve quoted earlier, Pope too was concerned with poetry as a craft.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Alliteration<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption aligncenter size-medium wp-image-312\"><a>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-312\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002211\/sewing-300x171.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a store front. The name of the store is &quot;Sue's Sewing Services&quot;\" width=\"300\" height=\"171\" \/>\r\n<\/a><\/div>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Alliteration is the term used to describe successive words beginning with the same sound \u2013 usually, then, with the same letter.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">To illustrate this I would like to use a stanza from Arthur Hugh Clough\u2019s poem, \u2018Natura naturans\u2019. There is not enough space to quote the whole poem, but to give you some idea of the context of this stanza so that you can more fully appreciate what Clough is doing, it is worth explaining that \u2018Natura naturans\u2019 describes the sexual tension between a young man and woman who sit next to each other in a railway carriage. They have not been introduced, and they neither speak nor exchange so much as a glance. The subject matter and its treatment is unusual and also extraordinarily frank for the time of writing (about 1849), but you need to know what is being described in order to appreciate the physicality of the lines I quote.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 3<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the attached stanza from Arthur Hugh Clough\u2019s poem\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Natura+naturans%E2%80%99\">\u201cNatura Naturans\u201d<\/a>\u00a0and consider the following questions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is the single most striking technique used, and what are the effects?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How would you describe the imagery, and what does it contribute to the overall effect?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Visually the use of alliteration is striking, particularly in the first line and almost equally so in the second. If you took the advice above about paying attention to the physical business of articulating the words too, you should be in a good position to discriminate between the rapidity of the flies and the heavier movement of the bees, and to notice how tactile the language is. The effect is actually to create sensuality in the stanza.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Notice that though we begin with flies, bees and rooks, all of which are fairly common flying creatures, we move to the more romantic lark with its \u2018wild\u2019 song, and then to the positively exotic gazelle, leopard, and dolphin. From the rather homely English air (flies, bees, birds), we move to foreign locations \u2018Libyan dell\u2019 and \u2018Indian glade\u2019, and from there to \u2018tropic seas\u2019. (Cod in the North Sea would have very different connotations from dolphins in the tropics.) Air, earth, and sea are all invoked to help express the variety of changing highly charged erotic feelings that the speaker remembers. The images are playful and preposterous, joyfully expressing the familiar poetic subject of sexual attraction and arousal in a way that makes it strange and new. Notice that in each case the image is more effective because the alliteration emphasizes it.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h2>Rhyme<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">If a poem rhymes, then considering how the rhyme works is always important.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Rhyme schemes can be simple or highly intricate and complex; it will always be worth considering why a particular rhyme pattern was chosen and trying to assess its effects.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 4<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=%E2%80%98Love+From+the+North%E2%80%99\">\u201cLove from the North\u201d<\/a>\u00a0(1862) by Christina Rossetti. What is the poem about, and how does the rhyme contribute to the meaning and overall effect?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">\u2018Love From the North\u2019 tells a simple story. A woman about to marry one man is whisked away by another, just as she is about to exchange vows. The form of the poem is very simple: the second and fourth lines of each of the eight 4-line stanzas rhyme. More significantly, because the last word of each stanza is \u2018nay\u2019, there is only one rhyme sound throughout. There are more internal rhymes relying on the same repeated sound, however, aren\u2019t there? Look at the last lines of stanzas 1, 2, 6, 7 and 8 where \u2018say\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; \u2018nay\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; \u2018say\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; \u2018yea\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; and \u2018say\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019 appear. In the second stanza, \u2018gay\u2019 occurs twice in line 2; stanza five and six both have \u2018yea\u2019 in line 3. What is the effect of this?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Do you think the effect might be to help over-simplify the story? Clearly the woman has doubts about the man from the south\u2019s devotion: he \u2018never dared\u2019 to say no to her. He seems to have no will of his own: he \u2018saddens\u2019 when she does, is \u2018gay\u2019 when she is, wants only what she does. On her wedding day she thinks: \u2018It\u2019s quite too late to think of nay\u2019. But is she any happier with the strong man from the north? Who is he? Has he carried her off against her will? And what exactly do you make of the last stanza? Do the \u2018links of love\u2019 imply a chain? This strong-minded woman who imposed her will on the man from the south has \u2018neither heart nor power\/Nor will nor wish\u2019 to say no to the man from the north. Is that good, or bad? And what do you make of the \u2018book and bell\u2019 with which she\u2019s made to stay? Certainly they imply something different from the conventional Christian marriage she was about to embark on in the middle of the poem \u2013 witchcraft, perhaps, or magic? And are the words \u2018Till now\u2019 particularly significant at the beginning of line 3 in the last stanza? Might they suggest a new resolve to break free?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">How important is it to resolve such questions? It is very useful to ask them, but not at all easy to find answers. In fact, that is one of the reasons I like the poem so much. The language is very simple and so is the form \u2013 eight quatrains (or four-line stanzas) \u2013 and yet the more I think about the poem, the more interesting and ambiguous it seems. In my opinion, that is its strength. After all, do we always know exactly what we want or how we feel about relationships? Even if we do, is it always possible to put such feelings into words? Aren\u2019t feelings often ambivalent rather than straightforward?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">It is also worth bearing in mind the fact that the poem is written in ballad form. A ballad tells a story, but it does only recount events \u2013 part of the convention is that ballads don\u2019t go into psychological complexities. It is likely that Rossetti chose this ancient oral verse form because she was interested in raising ambiguities. But perhaps the point of the word \u2018nay\u2019 chiming throughout \u2018Love From the North\u2019 is to indicate the female speaker saying no to both men \u2013 the compliant lover and his opposite, the demon lover, alike? After all, \u2018nay\u2019 is the sound which gives the poem striking unity and coherence.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Keats\u2019s \u2018Eve of St Agnes\u2019 (1820) also tells a tale of lovers, but it isn\u2019t a ballad, even though the rhyme scheme of the first four lines is the same as Rossetti\u2019s quatrains. The stanzas are longer, and the form more complex and sophisticated. The rhyme pattern is the same throughout all 42 stanzas, the first two of which are reproduced for the following activity:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 5<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read\u00a0the first two stanzas of Keats\u2019s <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Keats%27s+%E2%80%98Eve+of+St+Agnes.\">\u201cEve of St Agnes.\u201d<\/a> How would you describe the rhyme scheme, and does it seem appropriate for the subject matter?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">In comparison to the Rossetti poem the rhyme sounds form complex patterns, don\u2019t they? While \u2018was\u2019\/\u2019grass\u2019 in the first stanza and \u2018man\u2019\/\u2019wan\u2019 in the second do not quite produce a full rhyme (depending on your accent), the first and third lines do rhyme in subsequent stanzas. Using a letter of the alphabet to describe each new rhyme sound, we could describe the pattern like this: a b a b b c b c c (imagine sustaining that intricate patterning for 42 stanzas). This kind of formula is useful up to a point for showing how often the same sounds recur, and it does show how complicated the interweaving of echoing sounds is. But it says nothing about how the sounds relate to what is being said \u2013 and, as I have been arguing all along, it is the relationship between meaning and word choice that is of particular interest. To give a full answer to my own question, I\u2019d really need to consider the function of rhyme throughout the poem. It would not be necessary to describe what happens in each stanza, but picking out particular pertinent examples would help me argue a case. With only the first two stanzas to work with, I could say that, if nothing else, the intricate rhyme pattern seems appropriate not only for the detailed descriptions but also for the medieval, slightly gothic setting of the chapel where the holy man prays.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 6<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the extract from Tennyson\u2019s <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Tennyson%27s+%E2%80%98Mariana\">\u201cMariana\u201d<\/a> (1830). Again, this comes from a longer poem, so it would be useful to look it up and read the rest if you have the opportunity.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Read the extract and consider the following questions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Describe the rhyme in the stanza from Tennyson\u2019s \u2018Mariana\u2019.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the first stanza about?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>As with the Keats poem, the rhyme scheme here is quite complicated. Using the same diagrammatic formula of a letter for each new rhyme sound, we could describe this as \u2018a b a b c d d c e f e f. You might notice too that indentations at the beginning of each line emphasise lines that rhyme with each other: usually the indentations are alternate, except for lines 6 and 7, which form a couplet in the middle of the stanza. It is worth telling you too that each of the stanzas ends with a variation of the line \u2018I would that I were dead\u2019 (this is known as a refrain) so \u2013 as in Christina Rossetti\u2019s \u2018Love From the North\u2019 \u2013 a dominant sound or series of sounds throughout helps to control the mood of the poem.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>We may not know who Mariana is, or why she is in the lonely, crumbling grange, but she is obviously waiting for a man who is slow in arriving. The \u2018dreary\u2019\/\u2019aweary\u2019 and \u2018dead\u2019\/\u2019said\u2019 rhymes, which, if you read the rest of the poem, you will see are repeated in each stanza, convey her dejection and express the boredom of endless waiting. As with the stanzas from Keats\u2019s \u2018Eve of St Agnes\u2019, there is plenty of carefully observed detail \u2013 black moss on the flower-plots, rusty nails, a clinking latch on a gate or door \u2013 all of which description contributes to the desolation of the scene and Mariana\u2019s mood. Were the moated grange a lively, sociable household, the poem would be very different. Either Mariana would be cheerful, or her suicidal misery would be in sharp contrast to her surroundings. It is always worth considering what settings contribute to the overall mood of a poem.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h2>Poetic Inversion<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Poetic inversion, or changing the usual word order of speech, is often linked to the need to maintain a rhythm or to find a rhyme. We noticed Pope\u2019s poetic inversion in\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i> and saw how the rhyme was intimately linked to the rhythm of the verse. The song \u2018Dancing in the Street\u2019, first recorded by Martha and the Vandellas in the 1960s, does violence to word order in the interests of rhyme \u2013 \u2018There\u2019ll be dancing in the street\/ A chance new folk to meet\u2019 \u2013 but, because the words are sung to a driving rhythm, we are unlikely to notice how awkward they are. There\u2019s a convention that we recognise, however unconsciously, that prevents us from mentally re-writing the line as \u2018a chance to meet new people\u2019. (\u2018People\u2019 rather than \u2018folk\u2019 would be more usual usage for me, but, as with the Pope example, this would mean that the rhythm too would be lost.)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Poems That Don\u2019t Rhyme<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Are poems that don\u2019t rhyme prose? Not necessarily. Virginia Woolf (1882\u20131941), a novelist rather than a poet, and T.S. Eliot (1888\u20131965), known particularly for his poetry, both wrote descriptive pieces best described as \u2018prose poems\u2019. These look like short prose passages since there is no attention to line lengths or layout on the page, as there was, for example, in \u2018Mariana\u2019. When you study Shakespeare you will come across blank verse. \u2018Blank\u2019 here means \u2018not rhyming\u2019, but the term \u2018blank verse\u2019 is used specifically to describe verse in unrhyming iambic pentameters.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Although iambic pentameters resemble our normal speech patterns, in ordinary life we speak in prose. You\u2019ll notice if you look through Shakespeare\u2019s plays that blank verse is reserved for kings, nobles, heroes and heroines. They may\r\n<i>also<\/i> speak in prose, as lesser characters do, but commoners don\u2019t ever have speeches in blank verse. Shakespeare \u2013 and other playwrights like him \u2013 used the form to indicate status. It is important to recognise this convention, which would have been understood by his contemporaries \u2013 writers, readers, and audiences alike. So choosing to write a poem in blank verse is an important decision: it will elevate the subject. One such example is Milton\u2019s epic <i>Paradise Lost<\/i>(1667), a long poem in twelve Books describing Creation, Adam and Eve\u2019s temptation, disobedience and expulsion from Paradise. It sets out to justify the ways of God to man, so blank verse is entirely appropriate. This great epic was in Wordsworth\u2019s mind when he chose the same form for his autobiographical poem, <i>The Prelude<\/i>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 7<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read and compare these <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=%E2%80%98The+Idiot+Boy%E2%80%99\">extracts<\/a>. One is\u00a0from Book XIII of <em>The Prelude<\/em>, where Wordsworth is walking up Mount Snowdon; the other is from \u201cThe Idiot Boy,\u201d one of his <em>Lyrical Ballads<\/em>. What effects are achieved by the different forms?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Both poems use iambic meter \u2013 an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable. The extract from\u00a0<i>The Prelude<\/i> uses iambic pentameters, five metrical feet in each line, whereas \u2018The Idiot Boy\u2019 (like the ballad, \u2018Love From the North\u2019) is in tetrameters, only four, establishing a more sing-song rhythm. Other stylistic techniques contribute to the difference in tone too: the language of <i>The Prelude<\/i> is formal (Wordsworth\u2019s \u2018Ascending\u2019 rather than \u2018going up\u2019), whereas \u2018The Idiot Boy\u2019 uses deliberately homely diction, and rhyme. Three simple rhyme words ring out throughout the 92 stanzas of the latter: \u2018Foy\u2019, \u2018boy\u2019 and \u2018joy\u2019 stand at the heart of the poem, expressing the mother\u2019s pride in her son. The moon features in each extract. In <i>The Prelude<\/i>, as Wordsworth climbs, the ground lightens, as it does in The Old Testament before a prophet appears. Far from being a meaningless syllable to fill the rhythm of a line, \u2018lo\u2019 heightens the religious parallel, recalling the biblical \u2018Lo, I bring you tidings of great joy\u2019: this episode from <i>The Prelude<\/i> describes a moment of spiritual illumination. Wordsworth\u2019s intentions in these two poems were quite different, and the techniques reflect that.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Other poems that don\u2019t use rhyme are discussed later (\u2018Wherever I Hang\u2019; \u2018Mona Lisa\u2019; \u2018Poem\u2019). Notice that they use a variety of rhythms, and because of that none can be described as blank verse.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Voice<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\"><a><img class=\"alignleft wp-image-313\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002213\/2394470300_0e04588a85_z-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a wooden doll with mouth open and arms extended in a singing pose. The doll has brightly colored wire forms for hair and hand-drawn patterns on its shirt\" width=\"207\" height=\"155\" \/><\/a>Is the speaker in a poem one and the same as the writer? Stop and consider this for a few moments. Can you think of any poems you have read where a writer has created a character, or persona, whose voice we hear when we read?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Wordsworth\u2019s\u00a0<i>The Prelude<\/i> was written as an autobiographical poem, but there are many instances where it is obvious that poet and persona are different. Charlotte Mew\u2019s poem, \u2018The Farmer\u2019s Bride\u2019 (1916) begins like this:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"margin-left: 20px\"><em>Three summers since I chose a maid,\r\nToo young maybe \u2013 but more\u2019s to do\r\nAt harvest-time than bide and woo.\r\nWhen us was wed she turned afraid\r\n<\/em>\r\n<em>Of love and me and all things human;<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"margin-left: 20px\">(Warner, 1981, pp. 1\u20132)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Mew invents a male character here, and clearly separates herself as a writer from the voice in her poem. Some of the most well-known created characters \u2013 or personae \u2013 in poetry are Browning\u2019s dramatic monologues.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 8<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Consider the opening lines from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poems\">three Robert Browning poems<\/a>. Who do you think is speaking?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Well, the first speaker isn\u2019t named, but we can infer that, like Brother Lawrence whom he hates, he\u2019s a monk. The second must be a Duke since he refers to his \u2018last Duchess\u2019 and, if we read to the end of the third poem, we discover that the speaker is a man consumed with such jealousy that he strangles his beloved Porphyria with her own hair. Each of the poems is written in the first person (\u2018\r\n<i>my<\/i> heart\u2019s abhorrence\u2019; \u2018That\u2019s <i>my<\/i> last Duchess\u2019; <i>I<\/i> listened with heart fit to break\u2019). None of the characters Browning created in these poems bears any resemblance to him: the whole point of a dramatic monologue is the creation of a character who is most definitely not the poet. Charlotte Mew\u2019s poem can be described in the same way.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Line Lengths and Line Endings<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the following prose extract taken from Walter Pater\u2019s discussion of the\u00a0<i>Mona Lisa<\/i>, written in 1893, and then complete the activity:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"blockquote\">\r\n<p class=\"bl_nonindent\">She is older than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and learned the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in deep seas, and keeps their fallen day about her; and trafficked for strange webs with Eastern merchants: and, as Leda, was the mother of Helen of Troy, and, as Saint Anne, the mother of Mary; and all this has been to her but as the sound of lyres and flutes, and lives only in the delicacy with which it has moulded the changing lineaments, and tinged the eyelids and the hands.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 9<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">When W.B. Yeats was asked to edit\u00a0<i>The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892\u20131935<\/i> (1936), he chose to begin with this passage from Pater, but he set it out quite differently on the page. Before you read his version, write out the extract as a poem yourself. The exercise is designed to make you think about line lengths, where to start a new line and where to end it when there is no rhyme to give you a clue. There is no <i>regular<\/i> rhythm either, though I\u2019m sure you will discover rhythms in the words, as well as repeated patterns. How can you best bring out these poetic features?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Of course, there is no right answer to this exercise, but you should compare your version to Yeats\u2019s, printed below, to see if you made similar decisions.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"margin-left: 20px\"><em>She is older than the rocks among which she sits;\r\nLike the Vampire,\r\nShe has been dead many times,\r\nAnd learned the secrets of the grave;\r\nAnd has been a diver in deep seas,\r\nAnd keeps their fallen day about her;\r\nAnd trafficked for strange webs with Eastern merchants;\r\nAnd, as Leda,\r\nWas the mother of Helen of Troy,\r\nAnd, as St Anne,\r\nWas the mother of Mary;\r\nAnd all this has been to her but as the sound of lyres and flutes,\r\nAnd lives\r\nOnly in the delicacy\r\nWith which it has moulded the changing lineaments,\r\n<\/em>\r\n<em>And tinged the eyelids and the hands.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\"><a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=poem\">View the document as a PDF.<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">I wonder whether you used upper case letters for the first word of each line, as Yeats did? You may have changed the punctuation, or perhaps have left it out altogether. Like Yeats, you may have used \u2018And\u2019 at the beginnings of lines to draw attention to the repetitions: nine of the lines begin in this way, emphasising the way the clauses pile up, defining and redefining the mysterious Mona Lisa. Two lines begin with \u2018She\u2019: while there was no choice about the first, beginning the third in the same way focuses attention on her right at the start of the poem. Yeats has used Pater\u2019s punctuation to guide his line endings in all but two places: lines 13 and 14 run on \u2013 a stylistic device known as enjambment. The effect is an interesting interaction between eyes and ears. While we may be tempted to read on without pausing to find the sense, the line endings and white space of the page impose pauses on our reading, less than the commas and semi-colons that mark off the other lines, but significant nevertheless.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Yeats\u2019s arrangement of the words makes the structure and movement of Pater\u2019s long sentence clearer than it appears when written as prose. The poem begins with age \u2013 she is \u2018older than the rocks\u2019 \u2013 and refers to \u2018Vampire\u2019, death, and \u2018grave\u2019 in the first lines. The decision to single out the two words \u2018And lives\u2019 in a line by themselves towards the end of the poem sets them in direct opposition to the opening; we have moved from great age and living death to life. The arrangement of lines 8\u201311 highlights her links with both pagan and Christian religions: the Mona Lisa was the mother of Helen of Troy and the Virgin Mary. The wisdom and knowledge she has acquired is worn lightly, nothing more than \u2018the sound of lyres and flutes\u2019, apparent only in the \u2018delicacy\u2019 of colour on \u2018eyelids and hands\u2019.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">The aim of the preceding exercise was to encourage you to think about form and structure even when a poem does not appear to follow a conventional pattern. Because you have now \u2018written\u2019 a poem and had the opportunity to compare it with someone else\u2019s version of the same words, you should begin to realise the importance of decisions about where exactly to place a word for maximum effect, and how patterns can emerge which will control our reading when, for example, successive lines begin with repetitions. It should have made you think about the importance of the beginnings of lines, as well as line endings. What has been achieved by using a short line here, a longer one there? How do these decisions relate to what is being said? These are questions that can usefully be asked of any poem.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Earlier, discussing the extract from Pope\u2019s\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i>, I asked you to concentrate on the sound qualities of the poetry. Here, I want you to consider the visual impact of the poem on the page. It is a good thing to be aware of what a complex task reading is, and to be alive to the visual as well as the aural qualities of the verse.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity\u00a010<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">When W.B. Yeats was asked to edit\u00a0<i>The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892\u20131935<\/i> (1936), he chose to begin with this passage from Pater, but he set it out quite differently on the page. Before you read his version, write out the extract as a poem yourself. The exercise is designed to make you think about line lengths, where to start a new line and where to end it when there is no rhyme to give you a clue. There is no <i>regular<\/i> rhythm either, though I\u2019m sure you will discover rhythms in the words, as well as repeated patterns. How can you best bring out these poetic features?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Further exercise: taking Grace Nichols\u2019s \u2018Wherever I Hang\u2019, discussed in\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-crossref\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-10#act010\/?printable=1\">Activity 10<\/a>, you could reverse the process carried out in the previous exercise by writing out the poem as prose. Then, covering up the original, you could rewrite it as verse and compare your version with the original.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Comparing and Contrasting\r\nOften you will find that an assignment asks you to \u2018compare and contrast\u2019 poems. There\u2019s a very good reason for this, for often it is only by considering different treatments of similar subjects that we become aware of a range of possibilities, and begin to understand why particular choices have been made. You will have realised that often in the previous discussions I\u2019ve used a similar strategy, showing, for example, how we can describe the rhyme scheme of \u2018Love From the North\u2019 as simple once we have looked at the more intricate patterning of Keats\u2019s \u2018The Eve of St Agnes\u2019 or Tennyson\u2019s \u2018Mariana\u2019. Anne Bront\u00eb\u2019s \u2018Home\u2019 and Grace Nichols\u2019s \u2018Wherever I Hang\u2019 treat the subject of exile in quite different ways, and looking at one can sharpen our understanding of what the other does.<\/h3>\r\nActivity 11\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the opening lines from these <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=poems+commemorating+deaths.\">two poems commemorating deaths<\/a>. What can you explain why they sound so very different?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">If I had to identify one thing, I would say that the first begins more elaborately and with a more formal tone than the second. \u2018Felix Randal\u2019 tends to use language in an unusual way, but you would probably agree that the first sentence is quite straightforward and sounds colloquial (or informal), as if the speaker has just overheard someone talking about Randal\u2019s death and wants to confirm his impression. \u2018Lycidas\u2019 opens quite differently. It is not immediately apparent what evergreens have to do with anything (in fact they work to establish an appropriately melancholy atmosphere or tone), and it isn\u2019t until line 8 that we learn of a death. The word \u2018dead\u2019 is repeated, and the following line tells us that Lycidas was a young man. While \u2018Felix Randal\u2019 has an immediacy, the speaker of \u2018Lycidas\u2019 seems to find it hard to get going.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Both poems are elegies \u2013 poems written to commemorate death \u2013 and both poets are aware of writing within this convention, although they treat it differently.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 12<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">What do the titles of the poems used in\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-crossref\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-12#act013\/?printable=1\">Activity 13<\/a> tell us about each poem, and how might they help us understand the different uses of the elegiac convention?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">I think it would be apparent to most readers that \u2018Felix Randall\u2019 is simply a man\u2019s name, while \u2018Lycidas\u2019 is more mysterious. In fact Lycidas is a traditional pastoral <a><img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-314\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002215\/elegy-249x300.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a statue: man sitting on bench, playing a cello. The photo is soft focus and green-tinted\" width=\"249\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a>name, but unless you know something about the classical pastoral tradition it might mean very little to you. The young man whose death Milton was commemorating was actually called Edward King, but, at the time he was writing, elegies were formal, public and impersonal poems rather than private expressions of grief. \u2018Lycidas\u2019 commemorates a member of a prominent family rather than a close friend of the poet\u2019s. Over two hundred years later, Hopkins, while working loosely within the same elegiac convention, adapts it. Felix Randal is an ordinary working man, not a public figure. In the seventeenth century it would have been unlikely that he would have been considered worthy of a poem like this.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">If you were making a special study of elegies, there would be a great deal more to say. That\u2019s not the idea here, though. The point is that by comparing and contrasting the tone of the opening lines and the titles, and considering when the poems were written, we have come up with a number of significant differences.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 13<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read this\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poem\">poem by Robert Browning<\/a>\u00a0carefully. Who is speaking, and who is being addressed?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">From the evidence of the poem we know that the speaker once walked across a moor, found an eagle\u2019s feather, and has a high regard for the poet Shelley (1792\u20131822). The person being addressed is not named, but we discover that he (or she) once met Shelley, and this alone confers status by association. The word \u2018you\u2019 (\u2018your\u2019 in one instance) is repeated in 6 out of the first 8 lines. \u2018You\u2019 becomes a rhyme word at the end of the second line, so when we reach the word \u2018new\u2019 in line four \u2013 one of the two lines in the first stanzas that doesn\u2019t contain \u2018you\u2019 \u2013 the echo supplies the deficiency. \u2018You\u2019 clearly represents an important focus in the first half of the poem, but who exactly is \u2018you\u2019 ?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">Thinking about this apparently straightforward question of who is being addressed takes us into an important area of critical debate: for each one of us who has just read the poem has, in one sense, become a person who not only knows who Shelley is (which may not necessarily be the case) but lived when he did, met him, listened to him, and indeed exchanged at least a couple of words with him. Each of us reads the poem as an individual, but the poem itself constructs a reader who is not identical to any of us. We are so used to adopting \u2018reading\u2019 roles dictated by texts like this that often we don\u2019t even notice the way in which the text has manipulated us.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 14<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Now read the\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poem\">Robert Browning poem<\/a> again, this time asking yourself if the speaking voice changes in the last two stanzas, and if the person who is being addressed remains the same.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">If the first half of the poem is characterised by the repetition of \u2018you\u2019 and the sense of an audience that pronoun creates, then the second half seems quite different in content and tone. The speaker is trying to find a parallel in his experience to make sense of and explain his feeling of awe; the change of tone is subtle. Whereas someone is undoubtedly being addressed directly in the first stanza, in the third and fourth, readers overhear \u2013 as if the speaker is talking to himself.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">At first the connection between the man who met Shelley and the memory of finding an eagle\u2019s feather may not be obvious, but there is a point of comparison. As stanza 2 explains, part of the speaker\u2019s sense of wonder stems from the fact that time did not stand still: \u2018you were living before that, \/ And also you are living after\u2019. The moor in stanza 3, like the listener, is anonymous \u2013 it has \u2018a name of its own \u2026 no doubt\u2019 \u2013 but where it is or what it is called is unimportant: only one \u2018hand\u2019s-breadth\u2019 is memorable, the spot that \u2018shines alone\u2019 where the feather was found. The poem is about moments that stand out in our memories while the ordinary daily stuff of life fades. It also acknowledges that we don\u2019t all value the same things.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Activity 15<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Take another look at the\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poem\">poem.<\/a> How would you describe its form?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\">The structure of the poem is perfectly balanced: of the four quatrains, two deal with each memory, so, although the nature of each seems quite different, implicitly the form invites us to compare them. Think about the way in which Browning introduces the eagle feather. How does he convince us that this is a rare find?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">To begin with, the third and fourth stanzas make up one complete sentence, with a colon at the end of the third announcing the fourth; this helps to achieve a sense of building up to something important. Then we move from the visual image of a large space of moor to the very circumscribed place where the feather is found, but the reason why this \u2018hand\u2019s-breadth\u2019 shines out is delayed for the next two lines \u2018For there I picked up on the heather\u2019 \u2013 yes? what? \u2013 \u2018And there I put inside my breast\u2019 \u2013 well? \u2013 \u2018A moulted feather\u2019, ah (and notice the internal rhyme there of \u2018feather\u2019 with \u2018heather\u2019 which draws attention to and emphasises the harmony of the moment), and then the word \u2018feather\u2019 is repeated and expanded: \u2018an eagle-feather\u2019 Clearly the feather of no other bird would do, for ultimately the comparison is of eagle to the poet; Browning knows Shelley through his poetry as he knows the eagle through its feather, and that feather presents a striking visual image.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent\">There is an immediacy about the conversational opening of the poem which, I have suggested, deliberately moves into a more contemplative tone, possibly in the second stanza (think about it), but certainly by the third. We have considered some of the poetic techniques that Browning employs to convince us of the rarity of his find in the third and fourth stanzas. You might like to think more analytically about the word sounds, not just the rhyme but, for example, the repeated \u2018ae\u2019 sound in \u2018breadth\u2019 \u2018heather\u2019 \u2018breast\u2019 and \u2018feather\u2019. What, however, do you make of the tone of the last line? Try saying the last lines of each stanza out loud. Whether you can identify the meter with technical language or not is beside the point. The important thing is that \u2018Well, I forget the rest\u2019 sounds deliberately lame. After the intensity of two extraordinary memories, everything else pales into insignificance and, to reiterate this, the rhythm tails off. While the tone throughout is informal, the last remark is deliberately casual.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Alliteration<\/td>\r\n<td>repetition of sounds, usually the first letters of successive words, or words that are close together. Alliteration usually applies only to consonants.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Anapest<\/td>\r\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Assonance<\/td>\r\n<td>repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ballad<\/td>\r\n<td>originally a song which tells a story, often involving dialogue. Characteristically, the storyteller\u2019s own feelings are not expressed.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Caesura<\/td>\r\n<td>strong pause in a line of verse, usually appearing in the middle of a line and marked with a comma, semi-colon, or a full stop.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Couplet<\/td>\r\n<td>pair of rhymed lines, often used as a way of rounding off a sonnet; hence the term \u2018closing couplet\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Dactyl<\/td>\r\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Dialogue<\/td>\r\n<td>spoken exchange between characters, usually in drama and fiction but also sometimes in poetry.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Diction<\/td>\r\n<td>writer\u2019s choice of words. Poetic diction might be described, for instance, as formal or informal, elevated or colloquial.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Elegy<\/td>\r\n<td>poem of loss, usually mourning the death of a public figure, or someone close to the poet.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ellipsis<\/td>\r\n<td>omission of words from a sentence to achieve brevity and compression.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Enjambment<\/td>\r\n<td>the use of run-on lines in poetry. Instead of stopping or pausing at the end of a line of poetry, we have to carry on reading until we complete the meaning in a later line. The term comes from the French for \u2018striding\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Epic<\/td>\r\n<td>a long narrative poem dealing with events on a grand scale, often with a hero above average in qualities and exploits.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Epigram<\/td>\r\n<td>witty, condensed expression. The closing couplet in some of Shakepeare\u2019s sonnets is often described as an epigram.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Foot<\/td>\r\n<td>a unit of meter with a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. In the examples that follow, a stressed syllable is indicated by \u2018\/\u2019, and an unstressed syllable by \u2018x\u2019: anapest: xx\/; dactyl: \/xx; iamb: x\/; spondee: \/\/; trochee: \/x<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Heroic couplet<\/td>\r\n<td>iambic pentameter lines rhyming in pairs, most commonly used for satiric or didactic poetry, and particularly favoured in the eighteenth century.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Iamb<\/td>\r\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Iambic pentameter<\/td>\r\n<td>a line consisting of five iambs.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Imagery<\/td>\r\n<td>special use of language in a way that evokes sense impressions (usually visual). Many poetic images function as mental pictures that give shape and appeal to something otherwise vague and abstract; for example, \u2018yonder before us lie\/Deserts of vast Eternity\u2019. Simile and metaphor are two types of imagery.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Metaphor<\/td>\r\n<td>image in which one thing is substituted for another, or the quality of one object is identified with another. The sun, for Shakespeare, becomes \u2018the eye of heaven\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Meter<\/td>\r\n<td>(from the Greek\r\n<i>metron<\/i>, \u2018measure\u2019) measurement of a line of poetry, including its length and its pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. There are different meter in poetry. Most sonnets, for example, written in English are divided into lines of ten syllables with five stresses \u2013 a measure known as pentameter (from the Greek <i>pente<\/i> for \u2018five\u2019). The sonnet also tends to use a line (known as the iambic line) in which an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one, as in this line: \u2018If I should die, think only this of me\u2019. Most sonnets, then are written in iambic pentameters.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Narrative<\/td>\r\n<td>the telling of a series of events (either true or fictitious). The person relating these events is the narrator. However, it is often more usual in poetry to refer to \u2018the speaker\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Octave<\/td>\r\n<td>group of eight lines of poetry, often forming the first part of a sonnet.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ode<\/td>\r\n<td>a poem on a serious subject, usually written in an elevated formal style; often written to commemorate public events.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Onomatopoeia<\/td>\r\n<td>a word that seems to imitate the sound or sounds associated with the object or action, for example, \u2018cuckoo\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ottava rima<\/td>\r\n<td>a poem in eight-line stanzas, rhyming a b a b a b c c.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Personification<\/td>\r\n<td>writing about something not human as if it were a person, for example \u2018Busy old fool, unruly Sun,\/Why dost thou thus,\/Through windows and through curtains call onus?\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Poetic inversion<\/td>\r\n<td>reversing the order of normal speech in order to make the words fit a particular rhythm, or rhyme, or both.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Pun<\/td>\r\n<td>double meaning or ambiguity in a word, often employed in a witty way. Puns are often associated with wordplay.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Quatrain<\/td>\r\n<td>group of four lines of poetry, usually rhymed.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Refrain<\/td>\r\n<td>a line or phrase repeated throughout a poem, sometimes with variations, often at the end of each stanza.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Rhyme<\/td>\r\n<td>echo of a similar sound, usually at the end of a line of poetry. Occasionally, internal rhymes can be found, as in: \u2018Sister, my sister, O\r\n<i>fleet, sweet<\/i> swallow\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Rhyme scheme<\/td>\r\n<td>pattern of rhymes established in a poem. The pattern of rhymes in a quatrain, for instance, might be \u2018a b a b\u2019 or \u2018a b b a\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Rhythm<\/td>\r\n<td>the pattern of beats or stresses in a line creating a sense of movement. Sestet: group of six lines of poetry, often forming the second part of a sonnet.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Simile<\/td>\r\n<td>image in which one thing is likened to another. The similarity is usually pointed out with the word \u2018like\u2019 or \u2018as\u2019: \u2018My love is like a red, red rose\u2019.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Sonnet<\/td>\r\n<td>fourteen iambic pentameter lines with varying rhyme schemes.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Spondee<\/td>\r\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Syllable<\/td>\r\n<td>single unit of pronunciation. \u2018Sun\u2019 is one syllable; \u2018sunshine\u2019 is two syllables.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Tercet<\/td>\r\n<td>group of three lines in poetry, sometimes referred to as a triplet. Trochee:\r\n<i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Turn<\/td>\r\n<td>distinctive movement of change in mood or thought or feeling. In the sonnet, the turn usually occurs between the octave and the sestet, though the closing couplet in Shakespeare\u2019s sonnets often constitutes the turn.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Villanelle<\/td>\r\n<td>an intricate French verse form with some lines repeated, and only two rhyme sounds throughout the five three-line stanzas and the final four-line stanza.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>References<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent hanging-indent\">Abrams, M.H. (1971)\u00a0<i>A Glossary of Literary Terms<\/i>, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Barker, J.R.V. (ed.) (1985)\u00a0<i>The Brontes: Selected Poems<\/i>, Dent.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Bush, D. (ed.) (1966)\u00a0<i>Milton: Poetical Works<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Bygrave, S. (ed.) (1998)\u00a0<i>Romantic Writings<\/i>, The Open University.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Clough, A.H. (1890)\u00a0<i>Poems<\/i>, Macmillan.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Gardner, W.H. (1953)\u00a0<i>Poems and Prose of Gerard Manley Hopkins<\/i>, Penguin.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Gibson, J. (ed.) (1976)\u00a0<i>The Complete Poems of Thomas Hardy<\/i>, Macmillan.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Goodman, L. (1996)\u00a0<i>Literature and Gender<\/i>, The Open University.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Gray, R. (1990)\u00a0<i>American Poetry of the Twentieth Century<\/i>, Longman.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Hutchinson, T. (ed.) (1936) (revised 1969 by E. De Selincourt)\u00a0<i>Wordsworth: Poetical Works<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Jack, I. and Fowler, R. (eds) (1988)\u00a0<i>The Poetical Works of Robert Browning<\/i>, vol. III <i>Bells and Pomegranates<\/i>, Clarendon Press.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Matterson, S. and Jones, D. (2000)\u00a0<i>Studying Poetry<\/i>, Arnold. O\u2019Hara, F. (1964) <i>Lunch Poems<\/i>, City Lights Books.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Owens, W.R. and Johnson, H. (eds) (1998)\u00a0<i>Romantic Writings: An Anthology<\/i>, The Open University.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Pater, W. (1893) (1998)\u00a0<i>The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry<\/i>, ed. Adam Phillips, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Regan, S. (1997) \u2018Form and Meaning in Poetry: The Sonnet\u2019, in\u00a0<i>A103 An Introduction to the Humanities<\/i>, Block 1 \u2018Form and Reading\u2019, The Open University.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Sisson, C.H. (1984)\u00a0<i>Christina Rossetti: Selected Poems<\/i>, Carcanet.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Trilling, T. and Bloom, H. (1973)\u00a0<i>Victorian Prose and Poetry<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Wain, J. (ed.) (1990)\u00a0<i>The Oxford Library of English Poetry<\/i>, vol.II, Oxford University Press \/ Guild Publishing.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Warner, V. (ed.) (1981)\r\n<i>Charlotte Mew: Collected Poems and Prose<\/i>, Virago Press. Yeats, W.B. (1936) <i>The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892\u20131935<\/i>, Clarendon Press.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"nonindent\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"licensing\">\r\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div>\r\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\r\n \t<li>Approaching Poetry. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sue Asbee. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The Open University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-0\">http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Image of poem on white page. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Metropolitan Transportation Authority of the State of New York. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/seThxh\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/seThxh<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Image of fountain pen. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nic McPhee. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4zCtAc\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4zCtAc<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Image of Sue's Sewing Services. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Map of the Urban Linguistic Landscape. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/pa7JwF\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/pa7JwF<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Image of wooden doll. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Kathleen Tyler Conklin. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4DAhAG\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4DAhAG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Image of cello player. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: violscraper. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/eaqaTM\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/eaqaTM<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div id=\"reading-approaching-poetry\" class=\"chapter standard\">\n<div class=\"ugc chapter-ugc\">\n<div>\n<h2>Introduction<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">This reading is designed to develop the analytical skills you need for a more in-depth study of literary texts. You will learn about rhythm, alliteration, rhyme, poetic inversion, voice and line lengths and endings. You will examine poems that do not rhyme and learn how to compare and contrast poetry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">By the end of this reading\u00a0you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>have an awareness of the role of analysis to inform appreciation and understanding of poetry;<\/li>\n<li>be able to identify and discuss the main analytical concepts used in analyzing poetry.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"indent\"><a><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-308\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002208\/poem-300x235.jpg\" alt=\"Photo looking over the shoulder of a person holding a piece of paper with a typed poem on it. It has been edited in one spot with handwriting\" width=\"211\" height=\"165\" \/><\/a>What is the point of analyzing poetry? One simple answer is that the more we know about anything the more interesting it becomes: listening to music or looking at paintings with someone who can tell us a little about what we hear or see \u2013 or what we\u2019re reading \u2013 is one way of increasing our understanding and pleasure. That may mean learning something about the people who produced the writing, music, painting that we are interested in, and why they produced it. But it may also mean understanding why one particular form was chosen rather than another: why, for example, did the poet choose to write a sonnet rather than an ode, a ballad, or a villanelle? To appreciate the appropriateness of one form, we need to be aware of a range of options available to that particular writer at that particular time. In the same way, we also need to pay attention to word choice. Why was this particular word chosen from a whole range of words that might have said much the same? Looking at manuscript drafts can be really enlightening, showing how much effort was expended in order to find the most appropriate or most evocative expression.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 1<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Click on\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=William+Blake%27s+%E2%80%98Tyger%E2%80%99\">William Blake\u2019s \u201cTyger\u201d<\/a>\u00a0to read and compare the two versions of the poem. The one on the left is a draft; the other is the final published version.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">The most obvious difference between the two is that stanza 4 of the draft does not survive in the published version, and an entirely new stanza, \u201cWhen the stars threw down their spears,\u201d appears in the finished poem. Significantly, this introduces the idea of \u201cthe Lamb,\u201d a dramatic contrast to the tiger, as well as the idea of a \u201che\u201d who made the lamb. One similarity between the draft and final version is that each is made up entirely of unanswered questions. But if you look at the manuscript stanza 5, you can see revisions from \u201cWhat\u201d to \u201cWhere,\u201d and the struggle with the third line, where Blake eventually decided that the idea of an arm was redundant, subsumed in the notions of grasping and clasping. The two rhyme words are decided\u2014grasp\/clasp\u2014but in which order should they come? \u2018Clasp\u2019 is a less aggressive word than \u2018grasp\u2019; \u2018clasp\u2019 is not quite as gentle as an embrace, but it is closer to embracing than \u2018grasp\u2019 is \u2013 so it must be for deliberate effect that we end up with \u2018What dread grasp\/Dare its deadly terrors clasp?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">It is rare to have manuscript drafts to examine in this way, but I hope that this convinces you of the kind of attention writers pay to word choice. Let us take one more example. Think about this first stanza of Thomas Hardy\u2019s \u2018Neutral Tones\u2019 (1867):<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">We stood by a pond that winter day,<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">And the sun was white, as though chidden of God,<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">And a few leaves lay on the starving sod;<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\">\u2014They had fallen from an ash, and were gray. (Gibson, 1976, p. 12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Notice that, in the last line, \u2018oak\u2019 or \u2018elm\u2019 would work just as well as far as the rhythm or music of the line is concerned, but \u2018ash\u2019 has extra connotations of grayness, of something burnt out, dead, finished (\u2018ashes to ashes\u2019, too, perhaps?), all of which contribute to the mood that Hardy conveys in a way that \u2018oak\u2019 or \u2018elm\u2019 wouldn\u2019t.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">To return to my original question then, \u2018what is the point of analyzing poetry?\u2019, one answer is that only an analytical approach can help us arrive at an informed appreciation and understanding of the poem. Whether we like a poem or not, we should be able to recognize the craftsmanship that has gone into making it, the ways in which stylistic techniques and devices have worked to create meaning. General readers may be entirely happy to find a poem pleasing, or unsatisfactory, without stopping to ask why. But<br \/>\n<i>studying<\/i> poetry is a different matter and requires some background understanding of what those stylistic techniques might be, as well as an awareness of constraints and conventions within which poets have written throughout different periods of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">You may write poetry yourself. If so, you probably know only too well how difficult it is to produce something you feel really expresses what you want to convey. Writing an essay presents enough problems \u2013 a poem is a different matter, but certainly no easier. Thinking of poetry as a discipline and a craft which, to some extent, can be learned, is another useful way of approaching analysis. After all, how successful are emotional outpourings on paper? Words one might scribble down in the heat of an intense moment may have some validity in conveying that intensity, but in general might they not be more satisfactory if they were later revised? My own feeling is that a remark Wordsworth made 200 years ago has become responsible for a number of misconceptions about what poetry should do. In the Preface to a volume of poems called<br \/>\n<i>Lyrical Ballads<\/i> (1802) he wrote that \u2018all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings\u2019 (Owens and Johnson, 1998, p.85,11.105\u20136). The second time he uses the same phrase he says something that I think is often forgotten today: \u2018poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its origin from emotion <i>recollected in tranquillity\u2019<\/i> (my italics) (ibid., p. 95, ll.557\u20138). Notice the significant time lapse implied there \u2013 the idea that, however powerful or spontaneous the emotion, it needs to be carefully considered before you start writing. He goes on:<\/p>\n<div class=\"blockquote\">\n<p class=\"bl_nonindent\">The emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquillity gradually disappears, and an emotion kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation is gradually reproduced, and does itself actually exist in the mind. In this mood successful composition generally begins.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">You don\u2019t have to agree with Wordsworth about what poetry is or how best to achieve it. (Would you always want a poem to express powerful emotion, for example? I referred to Hardy\u2019s \u2018Neutral Tones\u2019 above, where the whole point is that neither of the two characters described feels anything much at all.) But the idea of contemplation is a useful and important one: it implies distance, perhaps detachment, but above all re-creation, not the thing itself. And if we try to re-create something, we must choose our methods and our words carefully in order to convey what we experienced as closely as possible. A word of warning though: writers do not always aim to express personal experiences; often a persona is created.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">The poet Ezra Pound offered this advice to other poets in an essay written in 1913: \u2018Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something\u2019 (Gray, 1990, p. 56). And in the 1950s William Carlos Williams advised, \u2018cut and cut again whatever you write\u2019. In his opinion, the \u2018test of the artist is to be able to revise without showing a seam\u2019 (loc. cit.). That sewing image he uses appeals to me particularly because it stresses the notion of skilled craftsmanship. Pound and Williams were American, writing long after Wordsworth, but, as you can see, like countless other poets they too reflected very seriously on their own poetic practice. I hope this helps convince you that as students we owe it to the poems we read to give them close analytical attention.<\/p>\n<h2>Note About Organization<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">In what follows, section headings like \u2018Rhyme\u2019, \u2018Rhythm\u2019, \u2018Line lengths and line endings\u2019, \u2018Alliteration\u2019, and so on, are intended to act as signposts to help you (if terms are unfamiliar, look them up in the glossary at the end). But these headings indicate only the\u00a0<i>main<\/i> technique being discussed. While it is something we need to attempt, it is very difficult to try to isolate devices in this way \u2013 to separate out, for example, the effects of rhythm from rhyme. This doesn\u2019t mean that we shouldn\u2019t look for particular techniques at work in a poem, but we need to be aware that they will be interdependent and the end product effective or not because of the way such elements work together.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">As you work through this reading, don\u2019t be discouraged if your response to exercises differs from mine. Remember that I had the advantage of choosing my own examples and that I\u2019ve long been familiar with the poems I\u2019ve used. On a daily basis, we probably read much less poetry than we do prose. This is perhaps one reason why many people say they find poetry difficult \u2013 unfamiliarity and lack of practice. But, like anything else, the more effort we put in, the wider the range of experiences we have to draw on. I hope that when you come across an unfamiliar extract in the discussions that follow you might decide to look up the whole poem on your own account, widening your own experience and enjoying it too.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Remember that language changes over the years. I\u2019ve deliberately chosen to discuss poems from different periods, and given dates of first publication. Do keep this in mind, especially as you may find some examples more accessible than others. The idiom and register of a poem written in the eighteenth century will usually be quite different from one written in the twentieth. Different verse forms are popular at different times: while sonnets have been written for centuries, they were especially fashionable in Elizabethan times, for example. Don\u2019t expect to find free verse written much before the twentieth century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><a><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-310\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002209\/editing-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a fountain pen sitting on top of a printed page. Editing marks have been made in red on the page\" width=\"234\" height=\"155\" \/><\/a>If you are working on a poem, it can be a good idea to print it, maybe even enlarge it, and then write anything you find particularly striking in the margins. Use highlighters or colored pens to underline repetitions and link rhyme words. Patterns may well emerge that will help you understand the way the poem develops. Make the poems your own in this way, and then, if you are the kind of person who doesn\u2019t mind writing in books, you can insert notes in a more restrained way in the margins of your book.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">If you prefer to work on your computer, you can do a similar thing by using an annotation tool on your word processor.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Whatever you do, always ask yourself what the effect of a particular technique that you identify is. Noticing an unusual choice of words, a particular rhyme scheme or use of alliteration\u00a0is an important first step, but you need to take another one. Unless you go on to say why what you have noticed is effective, what it contributes to the rest of the poem, how it endorses or changes things, then you are doing less than half the job. Get into the habit of asking yourself questions, even if you can\u2019t always answer them satisfactorily.<\/p>\n<h2>Rhythm<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">All speech has rhythm because we naturally stress some words or syllables more than others. The rhythm can sometimes be very regular and pronounced, as in a children\u2019s nursery rhyme \u2013 \u2018JACK and JILL went UP the HILL\u2019 \u2013 but even in the most ordinary sentence the important words are given more stress. In poetry, rhythm is extremely important: patterns are deliberately created and repeated for varying effects. The rhythmical pattern of a poem is called its meter, and we can analyze, or \u2018scan\u2019 lines of poetry to identify stressed and unstressed syllables. In marking the text to show this, the mark \u2018\/\u2019 is used to indicate a stressed syllable, and \u2018x\u2019 to indicate an unstressed syllable. Each complete unit of stressed and unstressed syllables is called a \u2018foot\u2019, which usually has one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">The most common foot in English is known as the iamb, which is an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one (x \/). Many words in English are iambic: a simple example is the word \u2018forgot\u2019. When we say this, the stresses naturally fall in the sequence:<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/i2hb-y5vkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Iambic rhythm is in fact the basic sound pattern in ordinary English speech. If you say the following line aloud you will hear what I mean:<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/7pd8-javkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">The next most common foot is the trochee, a stressed syllable (or \u2018beat\u2019, if you like) followed by an unstressed one (\/x), as in the word<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/jdub-levkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Both the iamb and the trochee have two syllables, the iamb being a \u2018rising\u2019 rhythm and the trochee a \u2018falling\u2019 rhythm. Another two-syllable foot known as the spondee has two equally stressed beats (\/ \/), as in<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/hrtl-zhvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Other important feet have three syllables. The most common are the anapest (x x \/) and the dactyl (\/ x x), which are triple rhythms, rising and falling respectively, as in the words<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/vx0l-mlvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Here are some fairly regular examples of the four main kinds of meter used in poetry. (I have separated the feet by using a vertical slash.) You should say the lines aloud, listening for the stress patterns and noting how the \u2018beats\u2019 fall on particular syllables or words.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Iambic meter<\/i><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/zctb-bpvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Trochaic meter<\/i><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/4ov7-iwvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Anapestic meter<\/i><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/q946-wzvkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><i>Dactylic meter<\/i><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/rf9s-k3wkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">The other technical point that you need to know about is the way the lengths of lines of verse are described. This is done according to the number of feet they contain, and the names given to different lengths of lines are as follows:<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>monometer<\/td>\n<td>a line of one foot<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>dimeter<\/td>\n<td>a line of two feet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>trimeter<\/td>\n<td>a line of three feet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>tetrameter<\/td>\n<td>a line of four feet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>pentameter<\/td>\n<td>a line of five feet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hexameter<\/td>\n<td>a line of six feet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>heptameter<\/td>\n<td>a line of seven feet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>octameter<\/td>\n<td>a line of eight feet.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"indent\">By far the most widely used of these are the tetrameter and the pentameter. If you look back at the four lines of poetry given as examples above, you can count the feet. You will see that the first one has five feet, so it is an iambic pentameter line; the second one has four feet, so it is a trochaic tetrameter line; the fourth and fifth also have four feet, so are anapestic and dactylic tetrameter lines respectively. Lines do not always have exactly the \u2018right\u2019 number of beats. Sometimes a pentameter line will have an extra \u2018beat\u2019, as in the famous line from\u00a0<i>Hamlet<\/i>, \u2018To be or not to be: that is the question\u2019, where the \u2018tion\u2019 of question is an eleventh, unstressed beat. (It is worth asking yourself why Shakespeare wrote the line like this. Why did he not write what would have been a perfectly regular ten-syllable line, such as \u2018The question is, to be or not to be\u2019?)<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Having outlined some of the basic meters of English poetry, it is important to say at once that very few poems would ever conform to a perfectly regular metrical pattern. The effect of that would be very boring indeed: imagine being restricted to using only iambic words, or trying to keep up a regular trochaic rhythm. Poets therefore often include trochaic or anapestic or dactylic words or phrases within what are basically iambic lines, in order to make them more interesting and suggestive, and to retain normal pronunciation. Here is a brief example from Shakespeare to show you what I mean. I have chosen a couple of lines spoken by Rosalind in<br \/>\n<i>As You Like It<\/i>, Act 1, scene 2, and have marked this first version to show you the basic iambic meter:<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/ldes-n7wkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">If you say the lines out loud in this regular way you can hear that the effect is very unnatural. Here is one way the lines might be scanned to show how the stresses would fall in speech (though there are other ways of scanning them):<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/rxfh-cbwkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">It must be emphasized that there is no need to feel that you must try to remember all the technical terms I have been introducing here. The purpose has been to help you to become aware of the importance of rhythmic effects in poetry, and it can be just as effective to try to describe these in your own words. The thing to hang on to when writing about the rhythm of a poem is that, as Ezra Pound put it, \u2018Rhythm MUST have meaning\u2019: \u2018It can\u2019t be merely a careless dash off with no grip and no real hold to the words and sense, a tumty tum tumpty tum tum ta\u2019 (quoted in Gray, 1990, p. 56). There are occasions, of course, when a tum-ty-ty-tum rhythm may be appropriate, and \u2018have meaning\u2019. When Tennyson wrote \u2018The Charge of the Light Brigade\u2019, he recreated the sound, pace, and movement of horses thundering along with the emphatic dactyls of \u2018Half a league, half a league, half a league onward \/ Into the valley of death rode the six hundred\u2019. But for a very different example we might take a short two-line poem by Pound himself. This time there is no fixed meter: like much twentieth-century poetry, this poem is in \u2018free verse\u2019. Its title is \u2018In a Station of the Metro\u2019 (the Metro being the Paris underground railway), and it was written in 1916:<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><span class=\"oucontent-inlinefigure\"><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/DE\/amlit\/qjho-fgwkar5i#fixme#fixme#fixme\" alt=\"\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Here you can see that the rhythm plays a subtle part in conveying the meaning. The poem is comparing the faces of people in a crowded underground to petals that have fallen on to a wet bough. The rhythm not only highlights the key words in each line, but produces much of the emotional feeling of the poem by slowing down the middle words of the first line and the final three words of the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">For our final example of rhythm I\u2019ve chosen a passage from Alexander Pope\u2019s\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i> (1711).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 2<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Take a look at this\u00a0excerpt from\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Criticism\">An Essay on Criticism<\/a>. Read it aloud if you can. Listen to the rhythm, and identify why the rhythm is appropriate to\u00a0the meaning.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Pope here uses a basic structure of iambic pentameters with variations, so that the lines sound as if they have a different pace, faster or slower, depending on what is being described. It is not just rhythm that contributes to the effect here: rhyme and alliteration (successive words beginning with the same sound) recreate smooth, rough, slow and swift movement. Rhythm is entirely dependent on word choice, but is also influenced by other interdependent stylistic devices. Pope\u2019s lines enact what they describe simply because of the care that has gone into choosing the right words. It doesn\u2019t matter if you don\u2019t recognise the classical allusions: from the descriptions it is clear that Ajax is a strong man and Camilla is quick and light. If you count the beats of each line, you\u2019ll notice that, in spite of the variety of sound and effect, all have five stresses, except the last, which has six. Strangely enough it is the last and longest line that creates an impression of speed. How is this achieved? Try to hear the lines by reading them again out loud.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">There is really only one way, and that is through the words chosen to represent movement: the repeated \u2018s\u2019 sounds associated with Camilla trip swiftly off the tip of the tongue, whereas Ajax\u2019s lines demand real physical effort from mouth, lips, and tongue. You will get a much stronger sense of this if you form the words in this way, even if you are unable to say them out loud. In an exam, for instance, silent articulation of a poem will help you grasp many poetic techniques and effects that may otherwise be missed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">This extract from Pope\u2019s\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i>, like the whole poem, is written in rhyming couplets (lines rhyming in pairs). They confer a formal, regular quality to the verse. The punctuation helps to control the way in which we read: notice that there is a pause at the end of each line, either a comma, a semi-colon, or a full stop. This use of the end-stopped line is characteristic of eighteenth-century heroic couplets (iambic pentameter lines rhyming in pairs), where the aim was to reproduce classical qualities of balance, harmony, and proportion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Get into the habit of looking at rhyme words. Are any of Pope\u2019s rhymes particularly interesting here? One thing I noticed was what is known as poetic inversion. The rhyme \u2018shore\u2019\/\u2019roar\u2019is clearly important to the sound sense of the verse, but the more natural word order (were this ordinary speech) would be \u2018The hoarse rough verse should roar like the torrent\u2019. Had he written this, Pope would have lost the sound qualities of the rhyme \u2018shore\u2019\/\u2019roar\u2019. He would have had to find a word such as \u2018abhorrent\u2019 to rhyme with \u2018torrent\u2019 and the couplet would have had a very different meaning. He would also have lost the rhythm of the line, in spite of the fact that the words are exactly the same.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Before we leave\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i>, did you notice that Pope\u2019s subject in this poem is really poetry itself? Like Wordsworth, Pound, and William Carlos Williams, all of whom I\u2019ve quoted earlier, Pope too was concerned with poetry as a craft.<\/p>\n<h2>Alliteration<\/h2>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption aligncenter size-medium wp-image-312\"><a><br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-312\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002211\/sewing-300x171.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a store front. The name of the store is &quot;Sue's Sewing Services&quot;\" width=\"300\" height=\"171\" \/><br \/>\n<\/a><\/div>\n<p class=\"indent\">Alliteration is the term used to describe successive words beginning with the same sound \u2013 usually, then, with the same letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">To illustrate this I would like to use a stanza from Arthur Hugh Clough\u2019s poem, \u2018Natura naturans\u2019. There is not enough space to quote the whole poem, but to give you some idea of the context of this stanza so that you can more fully appreciate what Clough is doing, it is worth explaining that \u2018Natura naturans\u2019 describes the sexual tension between a young man and woman who sit next to each other in a railway carriage. They have not been introduced, and they neither speak nor exchange so much as a glance. The subject matter and its treatment is unusual and also extraordinarily frank for the time of writing (about 1849), but you need to know what is being described in order to appreciate the physicality of the lines I quote.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 3<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the attached stanza from Arthur Hugh Clough\u2019s poem\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Natura+naturans%E2%80%99\">\u201cNatura Naturans\u201d<\/a>\u00a0and consider the following questions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>What is the single most striking technique used, and what are the effects?<\/li>\n<li>How would you describe the imagery, and what does it contribute to the overall effect?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<ol>\n<li>Visually the use of alliteration is striking, particularly in the first line and almost equally so in the second. If you took the advice above about paying attention to the physical business of articulating the words too, you should be in a good position to discriminate between the rapidity of the flies and the heavier movement of the bees, and to notice how tactile the language is. The effect is actually to create sensuality in the stanza.<\/li>\n<li>Notice that though we begin with flies, bees and rooks, all of which are fairly common flying creatures, we move to the more romantic lark with its \u2018wild\u2019 song, and then to the positively exotic gazelle, leopard, and dolphin. From the rather homely English air (flies, bees, birds), we move to foreign locations \u2018Libyan dell\u2019 and \u2018Indian glade\u2019, and from there to \u2018tropic seas\u2019. (Cod in the North Sea would have very different connotations from dolphins in the tropics.) Air, earth, and sea are all invoked to help express the variety of changing highly charged erotic feelings that the speaker remembers. The images are playful and preposterous, joyfully expressing the familiar poetic subject of sexual attraction and arousal in a way that makes it strange and new. Notice that in each case the image is more effective because the alliteration emphasizes it.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2>Rhyme<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">If a poem rhymes, then considering how the rhyme works is always important.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Rhyme schemes can be simple or highly intricate and complex; it will always be worth considering why a particular rhyme pattern was chosen and trying to assess its effects.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 4<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=%E2%80%98Love+From+the+North%E2%80%99\">\u201cLove from the North\u201d<\/a>\u00a0(1862) by Christina Rossetti. What is the poem about, and how does the rhyme contribute to the meaning and overall effect?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">\u2018Love From the North\u2019 tells a simple story. A woman about to marry one man is whisked away by another, just as she is about to exchange vows. The form of the poem is very simple: the second and fourth lines of each of the eight 4-line stanzas rhyme. More significantly, because the last word of each stanza is \u2018nay\u2019, there is only one rhyme sound throughout. There are more internal rhymes relying on the same repeated sound, however, aren\u2019t there? Look at the last lines of stanzas 1, 2, 6, 7 and 8 where \u2018say\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; \u2018nay\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; \u2018say\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; \u2018yea\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019; and \u2018say\u2019 \u2018nay\u2019 appear. In the second stanza, \u2018gay\u2019 occurs twice in line 2; stanza five and six both have \u2018yea\u2019 in line 3. What is the effect of this?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Do you think the effect might be to help over-simplify the story? Clearly the woman has doubts about the man from the south\u2019s devotion: he \u2018never dared\u2019 to say no to her. He seems to have no will of his own: he \u2018saddens\u2019 when she does, is \u2018gay\u2019 when she is, wants only what she does. On her wedding day she thinks: \u2018It\u2019s quite too late to think of nay\u2019. But is she any happier with the strong man from the north? Who is he? Has he carried her off against her will? And what exactly do you make of the last stanza? Do the \u2018links of love\u2019 imply a chain? This strong-minded woman who imposed her will on the man from the south has \u2018neither heart nor power\/Nor will nor wish\u2019 to say no to the man from the north. Is that good, or bad? And what do you make of the \u2018book and bell\u2019 with which she\u2019s made to stay? Certainly they imply something different from the conventional Christian marriage she was about to embark on in the middle of the poem \u2013 witchcraft, perhaps, or magic? And are the words \u2018Till now\u2019 particularly significant at the beginning of line 3 in the last stanza? Might they suggest a new resolve to break free?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">How important is it to resolve such questions? It is very useful to ask them, but not at all easy to find answers. In fact, that is one of the reasons I like the poem so much. The language is very simple and so is the form \u2013 eight quatrains (or four-line stanzas) \u2013 and yet the more I think about the poem, the more interesting and ambiguous it seems. In my opinion, that is its strength. After all, do we always know exactly what we want or how we feel about relationships? Even if we do, is it always possible to put such feelings into words? Aren\u2019t feelings often ambivalent rather than straightforward?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">It is also worth bearing in mind the fact that the poem is written in ballad form. A ballad tells a story, but it does only recount events \u2013 part of the convention is that ballads don\u2019t go into psychological complexities. It is likely that Rossetti chose this ancient oral verse form because she was interested in raising ambiguities. But perhaps the point of the word \u2018nay\u2019 chiming throughout \u2018Love From the North\u2019 is to indicate the female speaker saying no to both men \u2013 the compliant lover and his opposite, the demon lover, alike? After all, \u2018nay\u2019 is the sound which gives the poem striking unity and coherence.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Keats\u2019s \u2018Eve of St Agnes\u2019 (1820) also tells a tale of lovers, but it isn\u2019t a ballad, even though the rhyme scheme of the first four lines is the same as Rossetti\u2019s quatrains. The stanzas are longer, and the form more complex and sophisticated. The rhyme pattern is the same throughout all 42 stanzas, the first two of which are reproduced for the following activity:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 5<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read\u00a0the first two stanzas of Keats\u2019s <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Keats%27s+%E2%80%98Eve+of+St+Agnes.\">\u201cEve of St Agnes.\u201d<\/a> How would you describe the rhyme scheme, and does it seem appropriate for the subject matter?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">In comparison to the Rossetti poem the rhyme sounds form complex patterns, don\u2019t they? While \u2018was\u2019\/\u2019grass\u2019 in the first stanza and \u2018man\u2019\/\u2019wan\u2019 in the second do not quite produce a full rhyme (depending on your accent), the first and third lines do rhyme in subsequent stanzas. Using a letter of the alphabet to describe each new rhyme sound, we could describe the pattern like this: a b a b b c b c c (imagine sustaining that intricate patterning for 42 stanzas). This kind of formula is useful up to a point for showing how often the same sounds recur, and it does show how complicated the interweaving of echoing sounds is. But it says nothing about how the sounds relate to what is being said \u2013 and, as I have been arguing all along, it is the relationship between meaning and word choice that is of particular interest. To give a full answer to my own question, I\u2019d really need to consider the function of rhyme throughout the poem. It would not be necessary to describe what happens in each stanza, but picking out particular pertinent examples would help me argue a case. With only the first two stanzas to work with, I could say that, if nothing else, the intricate rhyme pattern seems appropriate not only for the detailed descriptions but also for the medieval, slightly gothic setting of the chapel where the holy man prays.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 6<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the extract from Tennyson\u2019s <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Tennyson%27s+%E2%80%98Mariana\">\u201cMariana\u201d<\/a> (1830). Again, this comes from a longer poem, so it would be useful to look it up and read the rest if you have the opportunity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Read the extract and consider the following questions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Describe the rhyme in the stanza from Tennyson\u2019s \u2018Mariana\u2019.<\/li>\n<li>What is the first stanza about?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<ol>\n<li>As with the Keats poem, the rhyme scheme here is quite complicated. Using the same diagrammatic formula of a letter for each new rhyme sound, we could describe this as \u2018a b a b c d d c e f e f. You might notice too that indentations at the beginning of each line emphasise lines that rhyme with each other: usually the indentations are alternate, except for lines 6 and 7, which form a couplet in the middle of the stanza. It is worth telling you too that each of the stanzas ends with a variation of the line \u2018I would that I were dead\u2019 (this is known as a refrain) so \u2013 as in Christina Rossetti\u2019s \u2018Love From the North\u2019 \u2013 a dominant sound or series of sounds throughout helps to control the mood of the poem.<\/li>\n<li>We may not know who Mariana is, or why she is in the lonely, crumbling grange, but she is obviously waiting for a man who is slow in arriving. The \u2018dreary\u2019\/\u2019aweary\u2019 and \u2018dead\u2019\/\u2019said\u2019 rhymes, which, if you read the rest of the poem, you will see are repeated in each stanza, convey her dejection and express the boredom of endless waiting. As with the stanzas from Keats\u2019s \u2018Eve of St Agnes\u2019, there is plenty of carefully observed detail \u2013 black moss on the flower-plots, rusty nails, a clinking latch on a gate or door \u2013 all of which description contributes to the desolation of the scene and Mariana\u2019s mood. Were the moated grange a lively, sociable household, the poem would be very different. Either Mariana would be cheerful, or her suicidal misery would be in sharp contrast to her surroundings. It is always worth considering what settings contribute to the overall mood of a poem.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h2>Poetic Inversion<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Poetic inversion, or changing the usual word order of speech, is often linked to the need to maintain a rhythm or to find a rhyme. We noticed Pope\u2019s poetic inversion in\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i> and saw how the rhyme was intimately linked to the rhythm of the verse. The song \u2018Dancing in the Street\u2019, first recorded by Martha and the Vandellas in the 1960s, does violence to word order in the interests of rhyme \u2013 \u2018There\u2019ll be dancing in the street\/ A chance new folk to meet\u2019 \u2013 but, because the words are sung to a driving rhythm, we are unlikely to notice how awkward they are. There\u2019s a convention that we recognise, however unconsciously, that prevents us from mentally re-writing the line as \u2018a chance to meet new people\u2019. (\u2018People\u2019 rather than \u2018folk\u2019 would be more usual usage for me, but, as with the Pope example, this would mean that the rhythm too would be lost.)<\/p>\n<h2>Poems That Don\u2019t Rhyme<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Are poems that don\u2019t rhyme prose? Not necessarily. Virginia Woolf (1882\u20131941), a novelist rather than a poet, and T.S. Eliot (1888\u20131965), known particularly for his poetry, both wrote descriptive pieces best described as \u2018prose poems\u2019. These look like short prose passages since there is no attention to line lengths or layout on the page, as there was, for example, in \u2018Mariana\u2019. When you study Shakespeare you will come across blank verse. \u2018Blank\u2019 here means \u2018not rhyming\u2019, but the term \u2018blank verse\u2019 is used specifically to describe verse in unrhyming iambic pentameters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Although iambic pentameters resemble our normal speech patterns, in ordinary life we speak in prose. You\u2019ll notice if you look through Shakespeare\u2019s plays that blank verse is reserved for kings, nobles, heroes and heroines. They may<br \/>\n<i>also<\/i> speak in prose, as lesser characters do, but commoners don\u2019t ever have speeches in blank verse. Shakespeare \u2013 and other playwrights like him \u2013 used the form to indicate status. It is important to recognise this convention, which would have been understood by his contemporaries \u2013 writers, readers, and audiences alike. So choosing to write a poem in blank verse is an important decision: it will elevate the subject. One such example is Milton\u2019s epic <i>Paradise Lost<\/i>(1667), a long poem in twelve Books describing Creation, Adam and Eve\u2019s temptation, disobedience and expulsion from Paradise. It sets out to justify the ways of God to man, so blank verse is entirely appropriate. This great epic was in Wordsworth\u2019s mind when he chose the same form for his autobiographical poem, <i>The Prelude<\/i>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 7<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read and compare these <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=%E2%80%98The+Idiot+Boy%E2%80%99\">extracts<\/a>. One is\u00a0from Book XIII of <em>The Prelude<\/em>, where Wordsworth is walking up Mount Snowdon; the other is from \u201cThe Idiot Boy,\u201d one of his <em>Lyrical Ballads<\/em>. What effects are achieved by the different forms?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Both poems use iambic meter \u2013 an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable. The extract from\u00a0<i>The Prelude<\/i> uses iambic pentameters, five metrical feet in each line, whereas \u2018The Idiot Boy\u2019 (like the ballad, \u2018Love From the North\u2019) is in tetrameters, only four, establishing a more sing-song rhythm. Other stylistic techniques contribute to the difference in tone too: the language of <i>The Prelude<\/i> is formal (Wordsworth\u2019s \u2018Ascending\u2019 rather than \u2018going up\u2019), whereas \u2018The Idiot Boy\u2019 uses deliberately homely diction, and rhyme. Three simple rhyme words ring out throughout the 92 stanzas of the latter: \u2018Foy\u2019, \u2018boy\u2019 and \u2018joy\u2019 stand at the heart of the poem, expressing the mother\u2019s pride in her son. The moon features in each extract. In <i>The Prelude<\/i>, as Wordsworth climbs, the ground lightens, as it does in The Old Testament before a prophet appears. Far from being a meaningless syllable to fill the rhythm of a line, \u2018lo\u2019 heightens the religious parallel, recalling the biblical \u2018Lo, I bring you tidings of great joy\u2019: this episode from <i>The Prelude<\/i> describes a moment of spiritual illumination. Wordsworth\u2019s intentions in these two poems were quite different, and the techniques reflect that.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Other poems that don\u2019t use rhyme are discussed later (\u2018Wherever I Hang\u2019; \u2018Mona Lisa\u2019; \u2018Poem\u2019). Notice that they use a variety of rhythms, and because of that none can be described as blank verse.<\/p>\n<h2>Voice<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\"><a><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft wp-image-313\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002213\/2394470300_0e04588a85_z-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a wooden doll with mouth open and arms extended in a singing pose. The doll has brightly colored wire forms for hair and hand-drawn patterns on its shirt\" width=\"207\" height=\"155\" \/><\/a>Is the speaker in a poem one and the same as the writer? Stop and consider this for a few moments. Can you think of any poems you have read where a writer has created a character, or persona, whose voice we hear when we read?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Wordsworth\u2019s\u00a0<i>The Prelude<\/i> was written as an autobiographical poem, but there are many instances where it is obvious that poet and persona are different. Charlotte Mew\u2019s poem, \u2018The Farmer\u2019s Bride\u2019 (1916) begins like this:<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"margin-left: 20px\"><em>Three summers since I chose a maid,<br \/>\nToo young maybe \u2013 but more\u2019s to do<br \/>\nAt harvest-time than bide and woo.<br \/>\nWhen us was wed she turned afraid<br \/>\n<\/em><br \/>\n<em>Of love and me and all things human;<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"margin-left: 20px\">(Warner, 1981, pp. 1\u20132)<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Mew invents a male character here, and clearly separates herself as a writer from the voice in her poem. Some of the most well-known created characters \u2013 or personae \u2013 in poetry are Browning\u2019s dramatic monologues.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 8<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Consider the opening lines from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poems\">three Robert Browning poems<\/a>. Who do you think is speaking?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Well, the first speaker isn\u2019t named, but we can infer that, like Brother Lawrence whom he hates, he\u2019s a monk. The second must be a Duke since he refers to his \u2018last Duchess\u2019 and, if we read to the end of the third poem, we discover that the speaker is a man consumed with such jealousy that he strangles his beloved Porphyria with her own hair. Each of the poems is written in the first person (\u2018<br \/>\n<i>my<\/i> heart\u2019s abhorrence\u2019; \u2018That\u2019s <i>my<\/i> last Duchess\u2019; <i>I<\/i> listened with heart fit to break\u2019). None of the characters Browning created in these poems bears any resemblance to him: the whole point of a dramatic monologue is the creation of a character who is most definitely not the poet. Charlotte Mew\u2019s poem can be described in the same way.<\/p>\n<h2>Line Lengths and Line Endings<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the following prose extract taken from Walter Pater\u2019s discussion of the\u00a0<i>Mona Lisa<\/i>, written in 1893, and then complete the activity:<\/p>\n<div class=\"blockquote\">\n<p class=\"bl_nonindent\">She is older than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and learned the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in deep seas, and keeps their fallen day about her; and trafficked for strange webs with Eastern merchants: and, as Leda, was the mother of Helen of Troy, and, as Saint Anne, the mother of Mary; and all this has been to her but as the sound of lyres and flutes, and lives only in the delicacy with which it has moulded the changing lineaments, and tinged the eyelids and the hands.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 9<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">When W.B. Yeats was asked to edit\u00a0<i>The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892\u20131935<\/i> (1936), he chose to begin with this passage from Pater, but he set it out quite differently on the page. Before you read his version, write out the extract as a poem yourself. The exercise is designed to make you think about line lengths, where to start a new line and where to end it when there is no rhyme to give you a clue. There is no <i>regular<\/i> rhythm either, though I\u2019m sure you will discover rhythms in the words, as well as repeated patterns. How can you best bring out these poetic features?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Of course, there is no right answer to this exercise, but you should compare your version to Yeats\u2019s, printed below, to see if you made similar decisions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\" style=\"margin-left: 20px\"><em>She is older than the rocks among which she sits;<br \/>\nLike the Vampire,<br \/>\nShe has been dead many times,<br \/>\nAnd learned the secrets of the grave;<br \/>\nAnd has been a diver in deep seas,<br \/>\nAnd keeps their fallen day about her;<br \/>\nAnd trafficked for strange webs with Eastern merchants;<br \/>\nAnd, as Leda,<br \/>\nWas the mother of Helen of Troy,<br \/>\nAnd, as St Anne,<br \/>\nWas the mother of Mary;<br \/>\nAnd all this has been to her but as the sound of lyres and flutes,<br \/>\nAnd lives<br \/>\nOnly in the delicacy<br \/>\nWith which it has moulded the changing lineaments,<br \/>\n<\/em><br \/>\n<em>And tinged the eyelids and the hands.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\"><a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=poem\">View the document as a PDF.<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">I wonder whether you used upper case letters for the first word of each line, as Yeats did? You may have changed the punctuation, or perhaps have left it out altogether. Like Yeats, you may have used \u2018And\u2019 at the beginnings of lines to draw attention to the repetitions: nine of the lines begin in this way, emphasising the way the clauses pile up, defining and redefining the mysterious Mona Lisa. Two lines begin with \u2018She\u2019: while there was no choice about the first, beginning the third in the same way focuses attention on her right at the start of the poem. Yeats has used Pater\u2019s punctuation to guide his line endings in all but two places: lines 13 and 14 run on \u2013 a stylistic device known as enjambment. The effect is an interesting interaction between eyes and ears. While we may be tempted to read on without pausing to find the sense, the line endings and white space of the page impose pauses on our reading, less than the commas and semi-colons that mark off the other lines, but significant nevertheless.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Yeats\u2019s arrangement of the words makes the structure and movement of Pater\u2019s long sentence clearer than it appears when written as prose. The poem begins with age \u2013 she is \u2018older than the rocks\u2019 \u2013 and refers to \u2018Vampire\u2019, death, and \u2018grave\u2019 in the first lines. The decision to single out the two words \u2018And lives\u2019 in a line by themselves towards the end of the poem sets them in direct opposition to the opening; we have moved from great age and living death to life. The arrangement of lines 8\u201311 highlights her links with both pagan and Christian religions: the Mona Lisa was the mother of Helen of Troy and the Virgin Mary. The wisdom and knowledge she has acquired is worn lightly, nothing more than \u2018the sound of lyres and flutes\u2019, apparent only in the \u2018delicacy\u2019 of colour on \u2018eyelids and hands\u2019.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">The aim of the preceding exercise was to encourage you to think about form and structure even when a poem does not appear to follow a conventional pattern. Because you have now \u2018written\u2019 a poem and had the opportunity to compare it with someone else\u2019s version of the same words, you should begin to realise the importance of decisions about where exactly to place a word for maximum effect, and how patterns can emerge which will control our reading when, for example, successive lines begin with repetitions. It should have made you think about the importance of the beginnings of lines, as well as line endings. What has been achieved by using a short line here, a longer one there? How do these decisions relate to what is being said? These are questions that can usefully be asked of any poem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Earlier, discussing the extract from Pope\u2019s\u00a0<i>An Essay on Criticism<\/i>, I asked you to concentrate on the sound qualities of the poetry. Here, I want you to consider the visual impact of the poem on the page. It is a good thing to be aware of what a complex task reading is, and to be alive to the visual as well as the aural qualities of the verse.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity\u00a010<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">When W.B. Yeats was asked to edit\u00a0<i>The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892\u20131935<\/i> (1936), he chose to begin with this passage from Pater, but he set it out quite differently on the page. Before you read his version, write out the extract as a poem yourself. The exercise is designed to make you think about line lengths, where to start a new line and where to end it when there is no rhyme to give you a clue. There is no <i>regular<\/i> rhythm either, though I\u2019m sure you will discover rhythms in the words, as well as repeated patterns. How can you best bring out these poetic features?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Further exercise: taking Grace Nichols\u2019s \u2018Wherever I Hang\u2019, discussed in\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-crossref\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-10#act010\/?printable=1\">Activity 10<\/a>, you could reverse the process carried out in the previous exercise by writing out the poem as prose. Then, covering up the original, you could rewrite it as verse and compare your version with the original.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Comparing and Contrasting<br \/>\nOften you will find that an assignment asks you to \u2018compare and contrast\u2019 poems. There\u2019s a very good reason for this, for often it is only by considering different treatments of similar subjects that we become aware of a range of possibilities, and begin to understand why particular choices have been made. You will have realised that often in the previous discussions I\u2019ve used a similar strategy, showing, for example, how we can describe the rhyme scheme of \u2018Love From the North\u2019 as simple once we have looked at the more intricate patterning of Keats\u2019s \u2018The Eve of St Agnes\u2019 or Tennyson\u2019s \u2018Mariana\u2019. Anne Bront\u00eb\u2019s \u2018Home\u2019 and Grace Nichols\u2019s \u2018Wherever I Hang\u2019 treat the subject of exile in quite different ways, and looking at one can sharpen our understanding of what the other does.<\/h3>\n<p>Activity 11<\/p>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read the opening lines from these <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=poems+commemorating+deaths.\">two poems commemorating deaths<\/a>. What can you explain why they sound so very different?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">If I had to identify one thing, I would say that the first begins more elaborately and with a more formal tone than the second. \u2018Felix Randal\u2019 tends to use language in an unusual way, but you would probably agree that the first sentence is quite straightforward and sounds colloquial (or informal), as if the speaker has just overheard someone talking about Randal\u2019s death and wants to confirm his impression. \u2018Lycidas\u2019 opens quite differently. It is not immediately apparent what evergreens have to do with anything (in fact they work to establish an appropriately melancholy atmosphere or tone), and it isn\u2019t until line 8 that we learn of a death. The word \u2018dead\u2019 is repeated, and the following line tells us that Lycidas was a young man. While \u2018Felix Randal\u2019 has an immediacy, the speaker of \u2018Lycidas\u2019 seems to find it hard to get going.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Both poems are elegies \u2013 poems written to commemorate death \u2013 and both poets are aware of writing within this convention, although they treat it differently.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 12<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">What do the titles of the poems used in\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-crossref\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-12#act013\/?printable=1\">Activity 13<\/a> tell us about each poem, and how might they help us understand the different uses of the elegiac convention?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">I think it would be apparent to most readers that \u2018Felix Randall\u2019 is simply a man\u2019s name, while \u2018Lycidas\u2019 is more mysterious. In fact Lycidas is a traditional pastoral <a><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-314\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4984\/2019\/12\/12002215\/elegy-249x300.jpg\" alt=\"Photo of a statue: man sitting on bench, playing a cello. The photo is soft focus and green-tinted\" width=\"249\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a>name, but unless you know something about the classical pastoral tradition it might mean very little to you. The young man whose death Milton was commemorating was actually called Edward King, but, at the time he was writing, elegies were formal, public and impersonal poems rather than private expressions of grief. \u2018Lycidas\u2019 commemorates a member of a prominent family rather than a close friend of the poet\u2019s. Over two hundred years later, Hopkins, while working loosely within the same elegiac convention, adapts it. Felix Randal is an ordinary working man, not a public figure. In the seventeenth century it would have been unlikely that he would have been considered worthy of a poem like this.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">If you were making a special study of elegies, there would be a great deal more to say. That\u2019s not the idea here, though. The point is that by comparing and contrasting the tone of the opening lines and the titles, and considering when the poems were written, we have come up with a number of significant differences.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 13<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Read this\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poem\">poem by Robert Browning<\/a>\u00a0carefully. Who is speaking, and who is being addressed?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">From the evidence of the poem we know that the speaker once walked across a moor, found an eagle\u2019s feather, and has a high regard for the poet Shelley (1792\u20131822). The person being addressed is not named, but we discover that he (or she) once met Shelley, and this alone confers status by association. The word \u2018you\u2019 (\u2018your\u2019 in one instance) is repeated in 6 out of the first 8 lines. \u2018You\u2019 becomes a rhyme word at the end of the second line, so when we reach the word \u2018new\u2019 in line four \u2013 one of the two lines in the first stanzas that doesn\u2019t contain \u2018you\u2019 \u2013 the echo supplies the deficiency. \u2018You\u2019 clearly represents an important focus in the first half of the poem, but who exactly is \u2018you\u2019 ?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">Thinking about this apparently straightforward question of who is being addressed takes us into an important area of critical debate: for each one of us who has just read the poem has, in one sense, become a person who not only knows who Shelley is (which may not necessarily be the case) but lived when he did, met him, listened to him, and indeed exchanged at least a couple of words with him. Each of us reads the poem as an individual, but the poem itself constructs a reader who is not identical to any of us. We are so used to adopting \u2018reading\u2019 roles dictated by texts like this that often we don\u2019t even notice the way in which the text has manipulated us.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 14<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Now read the\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poem\">Robert Browning poem<\/a> again, this time asking yourself if the speaking voice changes in the last two stanzas, and if the person who is being addressed remains the same.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4>Discussion<\/h4>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">If the first half of the poem is characterised by the repetition of \u2018you\u2019 and the sense of an audience that pronoun creates, then the second half seems quite different in content and tone. The speaker is trying to find a parallel in his experience to make sense of and explain his feeling of awe; the change of tone is subtle. Whereas someone is undoubtedly being addressed directly in the first stanza, in the third and fourth, readers overhear \u2013 as if the speaker is talking to himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">At first the connection between the man who met Shelley and the memory of finding an eagle\u2019s feather may not be obvious, but there is a point of comparison. As stanza 2 explains, part of the speaker\u2019s sense of wonder stems from the fact that time did not stand still: \u2018you were living before that, \/ And also you are living after\u2019. The moor in stanza 3, like the listener, is anonymous \u2013 it has \u2018a name of its own \u2026 no doubt\u2019 \u2013 but where it is or what it is called is unimportant: only one \u2018hand\u2019s-breadth\u2019 is memorable, the spot that \u2018shines alone\u2019 where the feather was found. The poem is about moments that stand out in our memories while the ordinary daily stuff of life fades. It also acknowledges that we don\u2019t all value the same things.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Activity 15<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">Take another look at the\u00a0<a class=\"oucontent-olink\" href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/ocw\/mod\/oucontent\/olink.php?id=1713&amp;targetdoc=Robert+Browning+poem\">poem.<\/a> How would you describe its form?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Discussion<\/h3>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">The structure of the poem is perfectly balanced: of the four quatrains, two deal with each memory, so, although the nature of each seems quite different, implicitly the form invites us to compare them. Think about the way in which Browning introduces the eagle feather. How does he convince us that this is a rare find?<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">To begin with, the third and fourth stanzas make up one complete sentence, with a colon at the end of the third announcing the fourth; this helps to achieve a sense of building up to something important. Then we move from the visual image of a large space of moor to the very circumscribed place where the feather is found, but the reason why this \u2018hand\u2019s-breadth\u2019 shines out is delayed for the next two lines \u2018For there I picked up on the heather\u2019 \u2013 yes? what? \u2013 \u2018And there I put inside my breast\u2019 \u2013 well? \u2013 \u2018A moulted feather\u2019, ah (and notice the internal rhyme there of \u2018feather\u2019 with \u2018heather\u2019 which draws attention to and emphasises the harmony of the moment), and then the word \u2018feather\u2019 is repeated and expanded: \u2018an eagle-feather\u2019 Clearly the feather of no other bird would do, for ultimately the comparison is of eagle to the poet; Browning knows Shelley through his poetry as he knows the eagle through its feather, and that feather presents a striking visual image.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent\">There is an immediacy about the conversational opening of the poem which, I have suggested, deliberately moves into a more contemplative tone, possibly in the second stanza (think about it), but certainly by the third. We have considered some of the poetic techniques that Browning employs to convince us of the rarity of his find in the third and fourth stanzas. You might like to think more analytically about the word sounds, not just the rhyme but, for example, the repeated \u2018ae\u2019 sound in \u2018breadth\u2019 \u2018heather\u2019 \u2018breast\u2019 and \u2018feather\u2019. What, however, do you make of the tone of the last line? Try saying the last lines of each stanza out loud. Whether you can identify the meter with technical language or not is beside the point. The important thing is that \u2018Well, I forget the rest\u2019 sounds deliberately lame. After the intensity of two extraordinary memories, everything else pales into insignificance and, to reiterate this, the rhythm tails off. While the tone throughout is informal, the last remark is deliberately casual.<\/p>\n<h2>Glossary<\/h2>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Alliteration<\/td>\n<td>repetition of sounds, usually the first letters of successive words, or words that are close together. Alliteration usually applies only to consonants.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Anapest<\/td>\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Assonance<\/td>\n<td>repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ballad<\/td>\n<td>originally a song which tells a story, often involving dialogue. Characteristically, the storyteller\u2019s own feelings are not expressed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Caesura<\/td>\n<td>strong pause in a line of verse, usually appearing in the middle of a line and marked with a comma, semi-colon, or a full stop.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Couplet<\/td>\n<td>pair of rhymed lines, often used as a way of rounding off a sonnet; hence the term \u2018closing couplet\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Dactyl<\/td>\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Dialogue<\/td>\n<td>spoken exchange between characters, usually in drama and fiction but also sometimes in poetry.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Diction<\/td>\n<td>writer\u2019s choice of words. Poetic diction might be described, for instance, as formal or informal, elevated or colloquial.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Elegy<\/td>\n<td>poem of loss, usually mourning the death of a public figure, or someone close to the poet.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ellipsis<\/td>\n<td>omission of words from a sentence to achieve brevity and compression.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Enjambment<\/td>\n<td>the use of run-on lines in poetry. Instead of stopping or pausing at the end of a line of poetry, we have to carry on reading until we complete the meaning in a later line. The term comes from the French for \u2018striding\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Epic<\/td>\n<td>a long narrative poem dealing with events on a grand scale, often with a hero above average in qualities and exploits.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Epigram<\/td>\n<td>witty, condensed expression. The closing couplet in some of Shakepeare\u2019s sonnets is often described as an epigram.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Foot<\/td>\n<td>a unit of meter with a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. In the examples that follow, a stressed syllable is indicated by \u2018\/\u2019, and an unstressed syllable by \u2018x\u2019: anapest: xx\/; dactyl: \/xx; iamb: x\/; spondee: \/\/; trochee: \/x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Heroic couplet<\/td>\n<td>iambic pentameter lines rhyming in pairs, most commonly used for satiric or didactic poetry, and particularly favoured in the eighteenth century.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Iamb<\/td>\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Iambic pentameter<\/td>\n<td>a line consisting of five iambs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Imagery<\/td>\n<td>special use of language in a way that evokes sense impressions (usually visual). Many poetic images function as mental pictures that give shape and appeal to something otherwise vague and abstract; for example, \u2018yonder before us lie\/Deserts of vast Eternity\u2019. Simile and metaphor are two types of imagery.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Metaphor<\/td>\n<td>image in which one thing is substituted for another, or the quality of one object is identified with another. The sun, for Shakespeare, becomes \u2018the eye of heaven\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Meter<\/td>\n<td>(from the Greek<br \/>\n<i>metron<\/i>, \u2018measure\u2019) measurement of a line of poetry, including its length and its pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. There are different meter in poetry. Most sonnets, for example, written in English are divided into lines of ten syllables with five stresses \u2013 a measure known as pentameter (from the Greek <i>pente<\/i> for \u2018five\u2019). The sonnet also tends to use a line (known as the iambic line) in which an unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one, as in this line: \u2018If I should die, think only this of me\u2019. Most sonnets, then are written in iambic pentameters.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Narrative<\/td>\n<td>the telling of a series of events (either true or fictitious). The person relating these events is the narrator. However, it is often more usual in poetry to refer to \u2018the speaker\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Octave<\/td>\n<td>group of eight lines of poetry, often forming the first part of a sonnet.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ode<\/td>\n<td>a poem on a serious subject, usually written in an elevated formal style; often written to commemorate public events.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Onomatopoeia<\/td>\n<td>a word that seems to imitate the sound or sounds associated with the object or action, for example, \u2018cuckoo\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ottava rima<\/td>\n<td>a poem in eight-line stanzas, rhyming a b a b a b c c.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Personification<\/td>\n<td>writing about something not human as if it were a person, for example \u2018Busy old fool, unruly Sun,\/Why dost thou thus,\/Through windows and through curtains call onus?\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Poetic inversion<\/td>\n<td>reversing the order of normal speech in order to make the words fit a particular rhythm, or rhyme, or both.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Pun<\/td>\n<td>double meaning or ambiguity in a word, often employed in a witty way. Puns are often associated with wordplay.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Quatrain<\/td>\n<td>group of four lines of poetry, usually rhymed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Refrain<\/td>\n<td>a line or phrase repeated throughout a poem, sometimes with variations, often at the end of each stanza.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Rhyme<\/td>\n<td>echo of a similar sound, usually at the end of a line of poetry. Occasionally, internal rhymes can be found, as in: \u2018Sister, my sister, O<br \/>\n<i>fleet, sweet<\/i> swallow\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Rhyme scheme<\/td>\n<td>pattern of rhymes established in a poem. The pattern of rhymes in a quatrain, for instance, might be \u2018a b a b\u2019 or \u2018a b b a\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Rhythm<\/td>\n<td>the pattern of beats or stresses in a line creating a sense of movement. Sestet: group of six lines of poetry, often forming the second part of a sonnet.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Simile<\/td>\n<td>image in which one thing is likened to another. The similarity is usually pointed out with the word \u2018like\u2019 or \u2018as\u2019: \u2018My love is like a red, red rose\u2019.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Sonnet<\/td>\n<td>fourteen iambic pentameter lines with varying rhyme schemes.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Spondee<\/td>\n<td><i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Syllable<\/td>\n<td>single unit of pronunciation. \u2018Sun\u2019 is one syllable; \u2018sunshine\u2019 is two syllables.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Tercet<\/td>\n<td>group of three lines in poetry, sometimes referred to as a triplet. Trochee:<br \/>\n<i>see under<\/i> foot.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Turn<\/td>\n<td>distinctive movement of change in mood or thought or feeling. In the sonnet, the turn usually occurs between the octave and the sestet, though the closing couplet in Shakespeare\u2019s sonnets often constitutes the turn.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Villanelle<\/td>\n<td>an intricate French verse form with some lines repeated, and only two rhyme sounds throughout the five three-line stanzas and the final four-line stanza.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>References<\/h2>\n<p class=\"nonindent hanging-indent\">Abrams, M.H. (1971)\u00a0<i>A Glossary of Literary Terms<\/i>, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Barker, J.R.V. (ed.) (1985)\u00a0<i>The Brontes: Selected Poems<\/i>, Dent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Bush, D. (ed.) (1966)\u00a0<i>Milton: Poetical Works<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Bygrave, S. (ed.) (1998)\u00a0<i>Romantic Writings<\/i>, The Open University.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Clough, A.H. (1890)\u00a0<i>Poems<\/i>, Macmillan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Gardner, W.H. (1953)\u00a0<i>Poems and Prose of Gerard Manley Hopkins<\/i>, Penguin.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Gibson, J. (ed.) (1976)\u00a0<i>The Complete Poems of Thomas Hardy<\/i>, Macmillan.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Goodman, L. (1996)\u00a0<i>Literature and Gender<\/i>, The Open University.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Gray, R. (1990)\u00a0<i>American Poetry of the Twentieth Century<\/i>, Longman.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Hutchinson, T. (ed.) (1936) (revised 1969 by E. De Selincourt)\u00a0<i>Wordsworth: Poetical Works<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Jack, I. and Fowler, R. (eds) (1988)\u00a0<i>The Poetical Works of Robert Browning<\/i>, vol. III <i>Bells and Pomegranates<\/i>, Clarendon Press.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Matterson, S. and Jones, D. (2000)\u00a0<i>Studying Poetry<\/i>, Arnold. O\u2019Hara, F. (1964) <i>Lunch Poems<\/i>, City Lights Books.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Owens, W.R. and Johnson, H. (eds) (1998)\u00a0<i>Romantic Writings: An Anthology<\/i>, The Open University.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Pater, W. (1893) (1998)\u00a0<i>The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry<\/i>, ed. Adam Phillips, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Regan, S. (1997) \u2018Form and Meaning in Poetry: The Sonnet\u2019, in\u00a0<i>A103 An Introduction to the Humanities<\/i>, Block 1 \u2018Form and Reading\u2019, The Open University.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Sisson, C.H. (1984)\u00a0<i>Christina Rossetti: Selected Poems<\/i>, Carcanet.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Trilling, T. and Bloom, H. (1973)\u00a0<i>Victorian Prose and Poetry<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Wain, J. (ed.) (1990)\u00a0<i>The Oxford Library of English Poetry<\/i>, vol.II, Oxford University Press \/ Guild Publishing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"indent hanging-indent\">Warner, V. (ed.) (1981)<br \/>\n<i>Charlotte Mew: Collected Poems and Prose<\/i>, Virago Press. Yeats, W.B. (1936) <i>The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892\u20131935<\/i>, Clarendon Press.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"nonindent\">\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"licensing\">\n<div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div>\n<ul class=\"citation-list\">\n<li>Approaching Poetry. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sue Asbee. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The Open University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-0\">http:\/\/www.open.edu\/openlearn\/history-the-arts\/culture\/literature-and-creative-writing\/literature\/approaching-poetry\/content-section-0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image of poem on white page. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Metropolitan Transportation Authority of the State of New York. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/seThxh\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/seThxh<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image of fountain pen. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nic McPhee. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4zCtAc\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4zCtAc<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image of Sue&#8217;s Sewing Services. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Map of the Urban Linguistic Landscape. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/pa7JwF\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/pa7JwF<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image of wooden doll. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Kathleen Tyler Conklin. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4DAhAG\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4DAhAG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<li>Image of cello player. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: violscraper. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/eaqaTM\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/eaqaTM<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\" rel=\"license\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":53936,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-55","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":224,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/55","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/53936"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/55\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":367,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/55\/revisions\/367"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/224"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/55\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=55"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=55"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=55"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-jefferson-english102\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=55"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}