Definition

Refutals, or counterarguments, break down the other side’s claims and reasons.  Refutals are typically placed at the ends of the other side’s paragraphs.  Because it takes time to disprove—partially or total—another side’s views, refutals must be well developed.  A few generalizations that turn away the other side’s readers will not do!

Why Refutals Matter

It is not enough for writers to show that they disagree.  In academic writing and especially in the research project, nobody gives much credit for the existence of another’s point of view.  You must do more than show that they are misguided; the refutals are an area where you can strike back at the underdone or overdone claims of your opposition.

Refuting well shows the audience that you know more than just your side.  A well-researched point of view will have taken into account several sides.  (There are more than two sides to your topic, correct?)  Skilled writers think strategically about how they will respond to the other side.  Because each side has stronger and weaker points, you must show fairness in giving ground to those opposition points which carry weight; conversely, you can be more aggressive in undercutting their points if they lack value.  Such variety shows readers that you know which of their points are valid.

Just Doing What A Virus Does. . .

Viruses interrupt cell activity, hijacking the cell and making copies of themselves.  The virus metaphor in writing goes like this: Source support is needed, but it’s an interruption of your voice, your ideas.  We work at integrating and subordinating the support so that it remains in a backing role.  However, when writing refutals we try to be like viruses.  We take over “their” paragraph and interrupt its flow.  We bring in reasons why what they say is wrong, to some greater or lesser extent.  We end with our ideas, not theirs.  (In a weird way, some of our bad high-school habits of interrupting and switching focus, undercutting progress, can help us as we deal with the other side!  Be specific and professional as you do this, though.  Your refutal section fails if it sounds like a newspaper editorial (all generalized talk and no support).  Save some of your best cited material for this job of blunting the other side’s progress.  The key reminder is that you have to show their ideas fairly.  You cannot distort their ideas in this strange process. 

“Don’t You Take that Tone with Me, Missy/Mister!”

Tone is the author’s attitude toward the material.  It can be given away in diction, detail level, or even the amount of attention taken with a given idea.  Work on wording your refutals so that you are not utterly demolishing the other side’s views.  Keep the conversation going.  Refutals move from their ideas to yours to where you want the audience to be; this is a tough series of moves to make!Read your work aloud to gauge its tone and the effects it creates.

Cited Support

At the high-school level, writers often get away with uninterpreted citations.  Cited, supported, well-integrated refutals are expected.  If you are telling someone that they are wrong, do them the courtesy of backing it up.  Because people often wait till last to do refutals, they often turn into the worst-written parts of papers.  Refutals are the true test of the health of your argument; any lack of research will show through plainly.

Signal Phrases

“So Smith said ____________.  Who cares?”  Signal phrases hand off the material from you to the source.  Citations end the source use.  Signal phrases also build source credibility.  Tell us why so-and-so matters.  Give use the context for their summary/paraphrase/quote.  Hopefully, you can see why signal phrases are that much more important in the delicate refutal sections.  Work through source bias and credibility in the ways you deal with the setup of support.

Transitions

“Which side is she on?”  This is an ominous question that can appear if writers do not use transitions well enough.  Use lists of transitions (found easily enough, you researchers) to make it clear when you are moving from arguing the opposition to arguing against the opposition.  If a paragraph or two contains the con reason and the refutals, be sure we know where you switch from con to refutal.  Similarly, signal when you are moving from one idea to the next.
Refutals often point toward areas of common ground or compromise.  Think about how your refutals might alter/qualify/limit your thesis claim.  The thesis should be available for revision throughout the writing process.

What To Do Now

• Using your sources, go through highlighted material and locate support for your citations.  Decide on the extent to which each opposing reason is valid.
• Place your refutals within the opposing side’s paragraphs.  Set them up and the interpret them.
• Link the cited support to your idea that the opposing reason is misguided.  (Remember the logical fallacies; they should provide a pattern by which you can refute the other side’s moves.)