{"id":253,"date":"2014-09-25T21:57:40","date_gmt":"2014-09-25T21:57:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&p=253"},"modified":"2016-03-16T18:28:39","modified_gmt":"2016-03-16T18:28:39","slug":"psychosocial-development-and-attachment","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/chapter\/psychosocial-development-and-attachment\/","title":{"raw":"Psychosocial Development and Attachment","rendered":"Psychosocial Development and Attachment"},"content":{"raw":"

Emotional Development<\/h2>\r\n\"CryingAt birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses: attraction and withdrawal.\u00a0They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and pleasure.\u00a0And they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort.\u00a0At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with smiles to those who engage their positive attention.\u00a0Pleasure is expressed as laughter at 3 to 5 months of age, and displeasure becomes more specific fear, sadness, or anger between ages 6 and 8 months.\u00a0This fear is often associated with the presence of strangers or the departure of significant others known respectively as\u00a0stranger\u00a0wariness and separation anxiety\u00a0which appear sometime between 6 and 15 months.\u00a0And there is some indication that infants may experience jealousy as young as 6 months of age (Hart & Carrington, 2002).\r\n\r\nDuring the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of self as object.\u00a0This is illustrated in the 15 month old child\u2019s ability to recognize one\u2019s own reflection in a mirror.\u00a0(The classic mirror test or rouge test involves showing a toddler a mirror after having secretly rubbed red coloring on the child\u2019s nose.\u00a0Children who are younger than 15 months of age may try to wipe the color from the mirror.\u00a0But a 15 month old child may wipe the color from his or her own nose.)\u00a0Once a child has achieved self-awareness, the child is moving toward understanding social emotions such as guilt, shame or embarrassment as well as sympathy or empathy.\u00a0 These will require an understanding of the mental state of others that is acquired at around age 3 to 5 and will be explored in our next lesson (Berk, 2007).\r\n

Forming Attachments\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nThe significance of early attachments:\u00a0<\/strong>An attachment is desire for physical closeness with someone.\u00a0The\u00a0formation of attachments in infancy has been the subject of considerable research as attachments have been viewed as foundations for future relationships, as the basis for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, and as important influences on self-concept.\r\n\r\nMeasuring attachment styles:<\/strong>\u00a0The\u00a0classic model for studying styles of attachment involves having a caregiver and child come into a strange room filled with toys and observing the child\u2019s reactions.\u00a0A securely attached child will play with the toys and bring one to the caregiver to show and describe from time to time.\u00a0The\u00a0child is content and secure as he or she explores the situation.\u00a0An insecurely-resistant child will cling to the caregiver and refuse to go and play.\u00a0An insecure-avoidant attachment style is indicated by a child who is neither curious nor clingy; rather the child sits and waits until time to go.\r\n\r\nAttachment styles vary in the amount of security and closeness felt in the relationship and they can change with new experience.\u00a0\u00a0 The type of attachment fostered in parenting styles varies by culture as well.\u00a0For example, German parents value independence and Japanese mothers are typically by their children\u2019s sides.\u00a0As a result, the rate of insecure-avoidant attachments is higher in Germany and insecure-resistant attachments are higher in Japan.\u00a0These\u00a0differences reflect cultural variation rather than true insecurity, however (van Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 1999). \u00a0Keep in mind that methods for measuring attachment styles have been based on a model that reflects middle-class, U. S. values and interpretation.\u00a0Newer methods for assessment attachment styles involve using a Q-sort technique in which a large number of behaviors are recorded on cards and the observer sorts the cards in a way that reflects the type of behavior that occurs within the situation.\r\n\r\nAs we explore styles of attachment below, consider\u00a0how these are evidenced also in adult relationships.\r\n

Types of Attachments<\/h2>\r\nSecure:\u00a0<\/strong>A secure attachment is one in which the child feels confident that needs will be met in a timely and consistent way.\u00a0In North America, this interaction may include emotional connection in addition to adequate care.\u00a0However, even in cultures where mothers do not talk, cuddle, and play with their infants, secure attachments can develop (LeVine et. al., 1994).\u00a0Secure attachments can form provided the child has consistent contact and care from one or more caregivers.\u00a0Consistency of contacts may be jeopardized if the infant is cared for in a day care with a high turn-over of caregivers or if institutionalized and given little more than basic physical care.\u00a0And while infants who, perhaps because of being in orphanages with inadequate care, have not had the opportunity to attach in infancy can form initial secure attachments several years later, they may have more emotional problems of depression, anger, or be overly friendly as they make adjustments (O\u2019Connor et. als., 2003).\r\n\r\nInsecure Resistant:<\/strong>\u00a0This attachment style is marked by insecurity and a resistance to engaging in activities or play away from the caregiver.\u00a0It is as if the child fears that the caregiver will\u00a0abandon them and clings accordingly.\u00a0(Keep in mind that clingy behavior can also just be part of a child natural disposition or temperament and does not necessarily reflect some kind of parental neglect.)\u00a0The\u00a0child may cry if separated from the caregiver and also cry upon their return.\u00a0They seek constant reassurance that never seems to satisfy their doubt.\u00a0This type of insecure attachment might be a result of not having needs met in a consistent or timely way.\u00a0Consequently the infant is never sure that the world is a trustworthy place or that he or she can rely on others without some anxiety.\u00a0A caregiver who is unavailable, perhaps because of marital tension, substance abuse, or preoccupation with work, may send a message to the infant he or she cannot rely on having needs met.\u00a0A caregiver that attends to a child\u2019s frustration can help teach them to be calm and to relax.\u00a0But an infant who receives only sporadic attention when experiencing discomfort may not learn how to calm down.\r\n\r\nInsecure-Avoidant:\u00a0<\/strong>This too is an attachment style marked by insecurity.\u00a0But this style is also characterized by a tendency to avoid contact with the caregiver and with others.\u00a0This child may have learned that needs typically go unmet and learns that the caregiver does not provide care and cannot be relied upon for comfort, even sporadically.\u00a0An insecure-avoidant child learns to be more independent and disengaged.\u00a0Such a child might sit passively in a room filled with toys until it is time to go.\r\n\r\nDisorganized:<\/strong>\u00a0This represents the most insecure style of attachment and occurs when the child is given mixed, confused, and inappropriate responses from the caregiver.\u00a0For example, a mother who suffers from schizophrenia may laugh when a child is hurting or cry when a child exhibits joy.\u00a0The\u00a0child does not learn how to interpret emotions or to connect with the unpredictable caregiver.\r\n\r\nHow common are the attachment styles among children in the United States?\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0It is estimated that about 65 percent of children in the United States are securely attached.\u00a0Twenty percent exhibit avoidant styles and 10 to 15 percent are resistant.\u00a0Another 5 to 10 percent may be characterized as disorganized.\u00a0How would this compare with adults in the United States?\u00a0(We will look at this in our lesson on early adulthood.)","rendered":"

Emotional Development<\/h2>\n

\"CryingAt birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses: attraction and withdrawal.\u00a0They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and pleasure.\u00a0And they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort.\u00a0At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with smiles to those who engage their positive attention.\u00a0Pleasure is expressed as laughter at 3 to 5 months of age, and displeasure becomes more specific fear, sadness, or anger between ages 6 and 8 months.\u00a0This fear is often associated with the presence of strangers or the departure of significant others known respectively as\u00a0stranger\u00a0wariness and separation anxiety\u00a0which appear sometime between 6 and 15 months.\u00a0And there is some indication that infants may experience jealousy as young as 6 months of age (Hart & Carrington, 2002).<\/p>\n

During the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of self as object.\u00a0This is illustrated in the 15 month old child\u2019s ability to recognize one\u2019s own reflection in a mirror.\u00a0(The classic mirror test or rouge test involves showing a toddler a mirror after having secretly rubbed red coloring on the child\u2019s nose.\u00a0Children who are younger than 15 months of age may try to wipe the color from the mirror.\u00a0But a 15 month old child may wipe the color from his or her own nose.)\u00a0Once a child has achieved self-awareness, the child is moving toward understanding social emotions such as guilt, shame or embarrassment as well as sympathy or empathy.\u00a0 These will require an understanding of the mental state of others that is acquired at around age 3 to 5 and will be explored in our next lesson (Berk, 2007).<\/p>\n

Forming Attachments\u00a0<\/strong><\/h2>\n

The significance of early attachments:\u00a0<\/strong>An attachment is desire for physical closeness with someone.\u00a0The\u00a0formation of attachments in infancy has been the subject of considerable research as attachments have been viewed as foundations for future relationships, as the basis for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, and as important influences on self-concept.<\/p>\n

Measuring attachment styles:<\/strong>\u00a0The\u00a0classic model for studying styles of attachment involves having a caregiver and child come into a strange room filled with toys and observing the child\u2019s reactions.\u00a0A securely attached child will play with the toys and bring one to the caregiver to show and describe from time to time.\u00a0The\u00a0child is content and secure as he or she explores the situation.\u00a0An insecurely-resistant child will cling to the caregiver and refuse to go and play.\u00a0An insecure-avoidant attachment style is indicated by a child who is neither curious nor clingy; rather the child sits and waits until time to go.<\/p>\n

Attachment styles vary in the amount of security and closeness felt in the relationship and they can change with new experience.\u00a0\u00a0 The type of attachment fostered in parenting styles varies by culture as well.\u00a0For example, German parents value independence and Japanese mothers are typically by their children\u2019s sides.\u00a0As a result, the rate of insecure-avoidant attachments is higher in Germany and insecure-resistant attachments are higher in Japan.\u00a0These\u00a0differences reflect cultural variation rather than true insecurity, however (van Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 1999). \u00a0Keep in mind that methods for measuring attachment styles have been based on a model that reflects middle-class, U. S. values and interpretation.\u00a0Newer methods for assessment attachment styles involve using a Q-sort technique in which a large number of behaviors are recorded on cards and the observer sorts the cards in a way that reflects the type of behavior that occurs within the situation.<\/p>\n

As we explore styles of attachment below, consider\u00a0how these are evidenced also in adult relationships.<\/p>\n

Types of Attachments<\/h2>\n

Secure:\u00a0<\/strong>A secure attachment is one in which the child feels confident that needs will be met in a timely and consistent way.\u00a0In North America, this interaction may include emotional connection in addition to adequate care.\u00a0However, even in cultures where mothers do not talk, cuddle, and play with their infants, secure attachments can develop (LeVine et. al., 1994).\u00a0Secure attachments can form provided the child has consistent contact and care from one or more caregivers.\u00a0Consistency of contacts may be jeopardized if the infant is cared for in a day care with a high turn-over of caregivers or if institutionalized and given little more than basic physical care.\u00a0And while infants who, perhaps because of being in orphanages with inadequate care, have not had the opportunity to attach in infancy can form initial secure attachments several years later, they may have more emotional problems of depression, anger, or be overly friendly as they make adjustments (O\u2019Connor et. als., 2003).<\/p>\n

Insecure Resistant:<\/strong>\u00a0This attachment style is marked by insecurity and a resistance to engaging in activities or play away from the caregiver.\u00a0It is as if the child fears that the caregiver will\u00a0abandon them and clings accordingly.\u00a0(Keep in mind that clingy behavior can also just be part of a child natural disposition or temperament and does not necessarily reflect some kind of parental neglect.)\u00a0The\u00a0child may cry if separated from the caregiver and also cry upon their return.\u00a0They seek constant reassurance that never seems to satisfy their doubt.\u00a0This type of insecure attachment might be a result of not having needs met in a consistent or timely way.\u00a0Consequently the infant is never sure that the world is a trustworthy place or that he or she can rely on others without some anxiety.\u00a0A caregiver who is unavailable, perhaps because of marital tension, substance abuse, or preoccupation with work, may send a message to the infant he or she cannot rely on having needs met.\u00a0A caregiver that attends to a child\u2019s frustration can help teach them to be calm and to relax.\u00a0But an infant who receives only sporadic attention when experiencing discomfort may not learn how to calm down.<\/p>\n

Insecure-Avoidant:\u00a0<\/strong>This too is an attachment style marked by insecurity.\u00a0But this style is also characterized by a tendency to avoid contact with the caregiver and with others.\u00a0This child may have learned that needs typically go unmet and learns that the caregiver does not provide care and cannot be relied upon for comfort, even sporadically.\u00a0An insecure-avoidant child learns to be more independent and disengaged.\u00a0Such a child might sit passively in a room filled with toys until it is time to go.<\/p>\n

Disorganized:<\/strong>\u00a0This represents the most insecure style of attachment and occurs when the child is given mixed, confused, and inappropriate responses from the caregiver.\u00a0For example, a mother who suffers from schizophrenia may laugh when a child is hurting or cry when a child exhibits joy.\u00a0The\u00a0child does not learn how to interpret emotions or to connect with the unpredictable caregiver.<\/p>\n

How common are the attachment styles among children in the United States?\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0It is estimated that about 65 percent of children in the United States are securely attached.\u00a0Twenty percent exhibit avoidant styles and 10 to 15 percent are resistant.\u00a0Another 5 to 10 percent may be characterized as disorganized.\u00a0How would this compare with adults in the United States?\u00a0(We will look at this in our lesson on early adulthood.)<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t

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Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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