{"id":262,"date":"2014-09-25T22:30:55","date_gmt":"2014-09-25T22:30:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=262"},"modified":"2016-03-16T18:35:27","modified_gmt":"2016-03-16T18:35:27","slug":"lecture-lesson-5","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/chapter\/lecture-lesson-5\/","title":{"raw":"Lecture: Early Childhood","rendered":"Lecture: Early Childhood"},"content":{"raw":"<iframe src=\"\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/9sOU_WcpAbY\" width=\"420\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n<h2>Lecture Transcript<\/h2>\r\nEarly childhood is sometimes referred to as the preschool years. This is a period of the life span after infancy and before the child begins formal schooling. This is typically from ages 3 to 5 or 2 to 6 years.\r\n\r\nFirst, let\u2019s examine physical growth.\r\n\r\nThere is considerable difference in the body proportions of a child entering and exiting this stage. Toddlers have large heads and stomachs and short arms and legs.\u00a0But 6 year old children tend to have longer, leaner bodies as their torso lengthens.\r\n\r\nThe rate of physical growth in early childhood is slower than what was found in infancy.\u00a0Overall physical growth is at the rate of about 3 inches in height per year.\u00a0And about 4.5 pounds of weight is gained each year.\u00a0The average 6 year old in the United States is about 46 inches tall and weighs about 46 pounds.\u00a0This slower growth rate translates into a smaller appetite for children between ages 2 and 6 years.\r\n\r\nThis diminished appetite means these children are vulnerable to nutritional deficiencies.\u00a0This is particularly true if those small appetites are satisfied with foods poor in nutrition.\u00a0Preschoolers can suffer iron deficiencies particularly if they drink too much cow\u2019s milk which interferes with the body\u2019s ability to absorb iron.\u00a0Children in the United States consume too many high fat, high sugar junk foods.\u00a0And while the effects of such poor nutrition might not be immediately evident, the preference for eating such intensely sugary and fatty foods is being established and can interfere with nutrition for years to come.\r\n\r\nHow can you avoid setting up eating problems in this age group?\u00a0The following tips are directed toward establishing reasonable expectations about food and avoiding associating food with psychological needs.\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>First, don\u2019t try to force feed your child or fight with them over food.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Recognize that appetites vary and adjust accordingly.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Keep mealtime pleasant and as a time for family members to unite and enjoy one another\u2019s company.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Don\u2019t become a short order chef. Choose a reasonable menu that all can share.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Limit choices, particularly when allowing young children to make selections. Too many options can be confusing.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Serve balanced meals. Take the time to think about nutrition and prepare meals that are healthy.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Don\u2019t bribe the child with food. Offering certain foods as rewards can set up a hierarchy of good and bad foods which can get in the way of eating healthy meals.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nNow let\u2019s turn our attention to the brain.\u00a0During early childhood, the brain continues to grow and mature. At age 2, the brain is 75% its adult weight. By age 6, it\u2019s at 95 percent its adult weight. And by 7, the brain is about 100% its adult weight.\u00a0Changes in the child\u2019s ability to override emotional outbursts and to coordinate movement are seen as the cortex continues to mature.\u00a0Visual pathways continue to be established and the child becomes able to reproduce what is seen on paper when drawing. The left hemisphere of the brain undergoes a growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 facilitating language skills. The right hemisphere grows throughout childhood improving spatial skills, and the recognition of shapes and patterns.\u00a0Corpus callosum also grows between 3-6 years.\r\n\r\nGross motor skill development occupies much of the life of a young child.\u00a0Running, jumping, swinging, and learning to ride a bicycle are all examples of gross motor skills.\u00a0Many childhood songs combine music and words with large physical movements. Can you think of any examples? How about \u201cHead and Shoulders, Knees and Toes\u201d? Remember that one?\r\n\r\nYoung children are also practicing their fine motor skills by learning to pour, using scissors, and coloring.\u00a0Early childhood classrooms include a number of activities for improving fine motor skills.\u00a0Many songs and children\u2019s activities incorporate fine motor skills. Have you ever heard the song, \u201cThe Itsy Bitsy Spider\u201d? You\u2019ll find a video of it being performed in your lesson. Enjoy!\r\n\r\nSexual development begins even before birth.\u00a0Erections and vaginal lubrication are present before birth.\u00a0In infancy, babies stimulate their genitals when they have sufficient motor skills.\u00a0Their curiosity about the genitals continues in early childhood. Hopefully, this curiosity is met with a reasonable response rather than one that evokes shame or fear.\r\n\r\nLet\u2019s continue our look at cognitive development.\r\nRecall Piaget\u2019s second stage of cognitive development:\u00a0<strong>preoperational intelligence<\/strong>.\u00a0Early childhood is a time of learning to use thought to solve problems and learning to know and communicate about the world through the use of symbols, primarily language.\u00a0Now the child can think about what happened several days ago or image an event. Watch closely and you may see a child surprised by being able to hear a song in their head. \u201cWow! I can hear a song and it\u2019s playing in my head!\u201d Being able to think about the world in this new way doesn\u2019t mean that the child is logical about how the world works. Preoperational thought is \u2018prelogical\u2019 or before logical. Instead, there may be a tendency to believe that everyone sees the world through the child\u2019s eyes. I\u2019ll give you an example. One child came up to me at around Halloween (October) and said \u201cI know why god put skin on people.\u201d \u201cOh, really? Why?\u201d I responded. The child proudly reported, \u201cSo they wouldn\u2019t be scary to little kids!\u201d\r\n\r\nHere are some other aspects of preoperational thought.\u00a0Children love to play out roles at this age. This type of play, called sociodramatic play, allows them to take on a role fully and think about how to speak and act as well as what kinds of props are needed to become the part.\r\n\r\n<strong>Syncretism<\/strong>\u00a0refers to thinking that if two events occur simultaneously, one must have caused the other. A child whose mother brought a baby with her when she last left the hospital may think that a new visit to the same building will produce another child!\r\n\r\n<strong>Egocentrism<\/strong>\u00a0is one of Piaget\u2019s early concepts that refer to how these children assume that everyone thinks the way that they do.\r\nTry reading to a child and they may ask, \u201cWhere am I in the story?\u201d They believe that they are at the center of activity.\r\nOr you may head a child ask whether a character in a movie or cartoon loves them? That\u2019s an odd question, unless you\u2019re a 3 year old.\r\n\r\n<strong>Animism<\/strong>\u00a0is the thought that objects have lifelike qualities. Be sure to watch the video clip in your lesson. It\u2019s an attempt to help young children distinguish between living and non-living objects.\r\n\r\nPiaget challenged children\u2019s ability to understand how to classify objects. For example, in this image showing numerous red buttons and a single green button, you have objects that can be classified in several ways.\u00a0If you ask a 3 year old, \u201cWhat are there more of? Red things, green things, or buttons?\u201d The child will probably respond, \u201cRed things\u201d not recognizing that all are buttons.\r\n\r\nPiaget\u2019s experiments on\u00a0<strong>conservation<\/strong>\u00a0of matter indicated that children have numerous misconceptions about matter.\u00a0For example, if a container of water is poured into two differently shaped containers so that the water levels now vary, the child may think that the higher water level indicates more liquid. Or a child may think that if one line moves further to the right, it is more or if one row of pennies is widely spaced apart, it has more.\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<strong>theory of mind<\/strong>\u00a0is the understanding that other people have different thoughts than one\u2019s own. This realization replaces egocentrism and occurs between ages 3 and 5, typically; or around age 4.\u00a0This knowledge of other\u2019s mental states can aid in social relationships.\u00a0It serves as our everyday mindreading. It can be absent or difficult for children with autism spectrum disorders. Such children may not be able to appreciate other\u2019s mental states, depending on the level of severity of the disorder.\r\n\r\nVocabulary grows at the rate of 10 to 20 new words per day and the child has a vocabulary of approximately 10,000 words by age 6.\r\nHowever, children do not have a complete understanding of words. For example, a child may not understand that the expression, \u201ctime flies\u201d simply means that time passes quickly. Children tend to learn nouns more easily than verbs, even in more verb-friendly languages such as Chinese. Rules of grammar may be misapplied. An example of such over-regularization is found in statements such as \u201cI goed there.\u201d Or, \u201cI doed that!\u201d in which adding ed to the end of the word is used to indicate past tense incorrectly.\r\n\r\nRemember Vygotsky\u2019s zone of proximal development? This is the potential a child may achieve through guided participation. Language, both verbal and non-verbal is the vehicle of this guidance. Do you ever talk to yourself? When and why? Chances are you talk to yourself as an adult only when you want to express an emotion or clarify your thoughts. This inner speech is not the same as the speech you use when communicating with others; it\u2019s short and to the point. But when you were learning to use language, you may have struggled as you began to use words to communicate ideas to others. You probably spoke aloud. Then words became directed toward your own behavior. You may have talked to yourself with a sort of running commentary about your own activities and feelings as you learned to think using words. Gradually, this egocentric speech (spoken when alone) became private speech, or thinking in language. Inner speech is only spoken aloud if thoughts need to be clarified or emotion expressed.\r\n\r\nNow we turn our attention toward psychosocial development in early childhood. We\u2019ll explore self-concept, gender identity, and family life.\r\n\r\nA\u00a0<strong>self-concept<\/strong>\u00a0is one\u2019s own perception or image of self. We aren\u2019t born with a self-concept. It develops through interaction with others. Usually these others are those close to us like parents, siblings, or peers. Let\u2019s look at two theories of self-based on interaction.\r\n\r\nCharles Horton Cooley used the metaphor of a mirror or looking-glass when describing this process.\u00a0Our self-concept develops when we look at how those around us respond to us, how we look, what we say, and what we do. We then use their reactions to make self-judgments. If those around us respond favorably to us, we\u2019ll form a positive sense of self. But if those around us respond with criticism and insult, we interpret that as evidence that we are not good or acceptable. But those around us may respond to us based on more than our own performance or worth. Perhaps they don\u2019t notice what we do well or are reluctant to comment on it. As a result, we may have an inaccurate self-concept. And there may be certain periods in life in which we are more self-conscious or concerned with how others view us. Early childhood may be one of those times as children are piecing together a sense of self.\r\n\r\nGeorge Herbert Mead also focused on social interaction as important for developing a sense of self. He divided the self into two parts: the \u201cI\u201d or the spontaneous part of the self that is creative and internally motivated, and the \u201cme\u201d or the part of the self that takes into account what other people think.\u00a0The key to living well is to find ways to give expression to the \u201cI\u201d with the approval of the \u201cme\u201d. In other words, find out how to be creative and do what you care about within the guidelines of society. The I is inborn. But the me develops through social interaction and a process called \u201ctaking the role of the other.\u201d\u00a0A child first comes to take the role of a significant other person, typically a parent or sibling. A child, who has been told not to do something, may be found saying \u201cno\u201d to himself.\u00a0Gradually, the child will come to understand how the generalized other, or society at large, comes to view actions. Now a behavior is not just wrong according to a significant other person, it is wrong as a rule of society. In this way, cultural expectations become part of the judgment of self.\r\n\r\nEarly self-concepts can be quite exaggerated. A child may want to be the biggest, or be able to jump the highest, or to have the longest hair. This exaggerated sense of self is external; the child emphasizes outward expressions and responses in developing a sense of self.\r\nOlder children tend to become more realistic in their sense of self as they start comparing their own behavior with that of others.\r\n\r\nErikson views early childhood as a time of building on autonomy and taking initiative. The child wants to think of an activity and carry it out without interference of others.\r\n\r\nEarly childhood is also a time of developing gender identification or a sense of self based on gender. You may recall Freud\u2019s theory of the phallic stage in which the child develops a sense of masculinity or femininity.\u00a0Nancy Chordorow believed that mothers promote gender specific behavior in the way they interact with sons and daughters. Daughters are kept close and dependent while sons are encouraged to be independent and assertive.\u00a0Cognitive theory suggests that children actively seek their gender roles through a gender schema in which they sort their world into male and female categories. They ask whether activities, objects, colors, and mannerisms are for boys or girls.\r\nLearning theorists focus on the ways in which children are reinforced for gender stereotypic behavior and how modeling and media images promote gender stereotypic behaviors. The focus is on how society imposes gender expectations on children.\r\n\r\nHow is gender taught?\u00a0The training is said to begin in infancy as parents treat their sons and daughters differently. In some cultures it means cuddling and speaking to daughters, while directing sons toward outside activities.\u00a0Sons are given more freedom and less supervision than daughters. And daughters may be given unnecessary assistance thus undermining their confidence. Teachers call on boys more often in the classroom and schools may direct students into certain fields of study based on gender rather than abilitFriends have a different code of behavior for girls than for boys. Girls focus on closeness in friendship whereas boys may focus more on competition.\r\n\r\nIs gender taught or do children seek out how to behave based on their sex?\u00a0Gender expectations are taught and messages are presented in the media, in the schools, among friends, and by family members. But children also vary in the extent to which they follow the roles presented. There is an interactive role between the individual and society\u2019s expectations with respect to gender. This is called \u201cdoing gender.\u201d It means that we approach these expectations and respond to them in a variety of ways, depending on individual motives and attributes.\r\n\r\nThink of your parents. How would you describe their style of parenting? Are they consistent? Were they alike in their approach to discipline and support? Here are two models of parenting styles. You may be able to identify your own parents to some extent in these descriptions. Of course, these models represent clear categories. Real parents often fall somewhere in between.\r\n\r\nDiane Baumrind\u2019s model classifies parents in several ways based on the amount and direction of communication they have with their children, their level of warmth, and the level of maturity expected from the child. The\u00a0<strong>authoritarian<\/strong>\u00a0model is a traditional model in which the parents are in control. Children are expected to be obedient and respectful. These parents have low warmth and high maturity demands for their children.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>permissive<\/strong>\u00a0model is one in which parents allow children to make the rules. These parents show a good deal of warmth, but have trouble setting limits.\u00a0The authoritative model is parenting that is strict within reason and that is accompanied by affection. Children have some say in making rules and the exchanges are warm. This is also known as\u00a0<strong>democratic<\/strong>\u00a0parenting and is the model favored by Baumrind. The parenting program called \u201cLove and Logic\u201d is a good example of this model.\u00a0Uninvolved parents are unresponsive and non-demanding. As a consequence, their children may difficulty in social relationships, school, and other areas.\r\n\r\nLeMaster\u2019s and DeFrain\u2019s model focuses on what parents are trying to accomplish when parenting. It offers a glimpse at the psychological motivation of the parent suggesting that a parent\u2019s psychological needs rather than the child\u2019s developmental needs are frequently being addressed when parenting.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>martyr<\/strong>\u00a0is the type of parent who will do anything for their child; even those things that children should and could do on their own. This is to help the parent feel in control through self-sacrifice with the expectation that the child will be indebted to them.\u00a0The pal is lonely and wants a friend. The\u00a0<strong>pal<\/strong>\u00a0lets the child do what they want in hopes that the child will spend time with the parent and satisfy their need for companionship.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>police officer\/drill sergeant<\/strong>\u00a0wants direct control and gives the child many obedience tests. Obedience tests are often meaningless activities with the sole purpose of showing the child who is in control. The<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>teacher-counselor<\/strong>\u00a0parent is one who probably pays too much attention to what the \u201cexperts\u201d have to say about parenting. The teacher-counselor takes all responsibility for the child\u2019s behavior and thinks that if they just do the right things, they can have a perfect child.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>athletic coach<\/strong>\u00a0is the preferred model. It involves being objective and consistent in parenting and allowing the child to learn by doing.\r\n\r\nWhich model is best? It turns out that showing concern, warmth, and support is the most important ingredient. The way this care and concern is demonstrated depends on culture.\r\n\r\nAs of 2009, 64.2 percent of mothers with children under age 6 and 77.3 percent of mothers with children between the ages of 6 and 17 worked outside the home in the United States. Since the dramatic increase of women in the labor force, we\u2019ve seen many studies done to evaluate the impact of childcare on child development. Most of this attention has been devoted to looking at formal preschools and day care programs and the teacher-child ratios, type of environments, and activities available. The conclusion has been that day care that is stimulating and provides adequate attention to children is beneficial and sometimes superior to the world of children staying at home. In some parts of the world, child care concerns are more about safety and healthcare. Market Women in Liberia are women who sell small items as street or market vendors. These women are providers for their families and also take care of their children. Day care is not available to them so their children accompany them to the markets. These markets are crowded and often near waste dumps. Recently, there has been a nationwide effort to improve the conditions for children in the market places and to offer social services such as nutrition and health care for the children. You can learn more in your reading. Certainly, childcare concerns are varied throughout the world.\r\n\r\nSome amount of stress is normal in the lives of children. Normal stress includes everyday frustrations and disappointments and minor illness. These stressors can in fact be good life lessons for children and do not cause harm.\u00a0But toxic stress is long-term and undermines a child\u2019s sense of safety and support. This might come from living in an abusive household or one filled with neglect. Or it might be due to the lack of safety and fear that results from living in a crime-ridden community or with war. Prolonged stress leads to the production of stress hormones such as cortisol. Normally, these hormones help the body prepare to take action and get out of harm\u2019s way. But prolonged exposure reduces our immunity to disease and leads to problems with digestion, blood pressure, and muscle tensions.\u00a0In early childhood, our brains are building wiring systems in response to our environments. A child who undergoes chronic, intense stress can develop a low threshold to stress within the brain circuitry. Such a child may be nervous or hyper-vigilant.\u00a0Having a caring, supportive parent or other caregiver can reduce the impact of toxic stress.","rendered":"<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/9sOU_WcpAbY\" width=\"420\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2>Lecture Transcript<\/h2>\n<p>Early childhood is sometimes referred to as the preschool years. This is a period of the life span after infancy and before the child begins formal schooling. This is typically from ages 3 to 5 or 2 to 6 years.<\/p>\n<p>First, let\u2019s examine physical growth.<\/p>\n<p>There is considerable difference in the body proportions of a child entering and exiting this stage. Toddlers have large heads and stomachs and short arms and legs.\u00a0But 6 year old children tend to have longer, leaner bodies as their torso lengthens.<\/p>\n<p>The rate of physical growth in early childhood is slower than what was found in infancy.\u00a0Overall physical growth is at the rate of about 3 inches in height per year.\u00a0And about 4.5 pounds of weight is gained each year.\u00a0The average 6 year old in the United States is about 46 inches tall and weighs about 46 pounds.\u00a0This slower growth rate translates into a smaller appetite for children between ages 2 and 6 years.<\/p>\n<p>This diminished appetite means these children are vulnerable to nutritional deficiencies.\u00a0This is particularly true if those small appetites are satisfied with foods poor in nutrition.\u00a0Preschoolers can suffer iron deficiencies particularly if they drink too much cow\u2019s milk which interferes with the body\u2019s ability to absorb iron.\u00a0Children in the United States consume too many high fat, high sugar junk foods.\u00a0And while the effects of such poor nutrition might not be immediately evident, the preference for eating such intensely sugary and fatty foods is being established and can interfere with nutrition for years to come.<\/p>\n<p>How can you avoid setting up eating problems in this age group?\u00a0The following tips are directed toward establishing reasonable expectations about food and avoiding associating food with psychological needs.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>First, don\u2019t try to force feed your child or fight with them over food.<\/li>\n<li>Recognize that appetites vary and adjust accordingly.<\/li>\n<li>Keep mealtime pleasant and as a time for family members to unite and enjoy one another\u2019s company.<\/li>\n<li>Don\u2019t become a short order chef. Choose a reasonable menu that all can share.<\/li>\n<li>Limit choices, particularly when allowing young children to make selections. Too many options can be confusing.<\/li>\n<li>Serve balanced meals. Take the time to think about nutrition and prepare meals that are healthy.<\/li>\n<li>Don\u2019t bribe the child with food. Offering certain foods as rewards can set up a hierarchy of good and bad foods which can get in the way of eating healthy meals.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Now let\u2019s turn our attention to the brain.\u00a0During early childhood, the brain continues to grow and mature. At age 2, the brain is 75% its adult weight. By age 6, it\u2019s at 95 percent its adult weight. And by 7, the brain is about 100% its adult weight.\u00a0Changes in the child\u2019s ability to override emotional outbursts and to coordinate movement are seen as the cortex continues to mature.\u00a0Visual pathways continue to be established and the child becomes able to reproduce what is seen on paper when drawing. The left hemisphere of the brain undergoes a growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 facilitating language skills. The right hemisphere grows throughout childhood improving spatial skills, and the recognition of shapes and patterns.\u00a0Corpus callosum also grows between 3-6 years.<\/p>\n<p>Gross motor skill development occupies much of the life of a young child.\u00a0Running, jumping, swinging, and learning to ride a bicycle are all examples of gross motor skills.\u00a0Many childhood songs combine music and words with large physical movements. Can you think of any examples? How about \u201cHead and Shoulders, Knees and Toes\u201d? Remember that one?<\/p>\n<p>Young children are also practicing their fine motor skills by learning to pour, using scissors, and coloring.\u00a0Early childhood classrooms include a number of activities for improving fine motor skills.\u00a0Many songs and children\u2019s activities incorporate fine motor skills. Have you ever heard the song, \u201cThe Itsy Bitsy Spider\u201d? You\u2019ll find a video of it being performed in your lesson. Enjoy!<\/p>\n<p>Sexual development begins even before birth.\u00a0Erections and vaginal lubrication are present before birth.\u00a0In infancy, babies stimulate their genitals when they have sufficient motor skills.\u00a0Their curiosity about the genitals continues in early childhood. Hopefully, this curiosity is met with a reasonable response rather than one that evokes shame or fear.<\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s continue our look at cognitive development.<br \/>\nRecall Piaget\u2019s second stage of cognitive development:\u00a0<strong>preoperational intelligence<\/strong>.\u00a0Early childhood is a time of learning to use thought to solve problems and learning to know and communicate about the world through the use of symbols, primarily language.\u00a0Now the child can think about what happened several days ago or image an event. Watch closely and you may see a child surprised by being able to hear a song in their head. \u201cWow! I can hear a song and it\u2019s playing in my head!\u201d Being able to think about the world in this new way doesn\u2019t mean that the child is logical about how the world works. Preoperational thought is \u2018prelogical\u2019 or before logical. Instead, there may be a tendency to believe that everyone sees the world through the child\u2019s eyes. I\u2019ll give you an example. One child came up to me at around Halloween (October) and said \u201cI know why god put skin on people.\u201d \u201cOh, really? Why?\u201d I responded. The child proudly reported, \u201cSo they wouldn\u2019t be scary to little kids!\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Here are some other aspects of preoperational thought.\u00a0Children love to play out roles at this age. This type of play, called sociodramatic play, allows them to take on a role fully and think about how to speak and act as well as what kinds of props are needed to become the part.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Syncretism<\/strong>\u00a0refers to thinking that if two events occur simultaneously, one must have caused the other. A child whose mother brought a baby with her when she last left the hospital may think that a new visit to the same building will produce another child!<\/p>\n<p><strong>Egocentrism<\/strong>\u00a0is one of Piaget\u2019s early concepts that refer to how these children assume that everyone thinks the way that they do.<br \/>\nTry reading to a child and they may ask, \u201cWhere am I in the story?\u201d They believe that they are at the center of activity.<br \/>\nOr you may head a child ask whether a character in a movie or cartoon loves them? That\u2019s an odd question, unless you\u2019re a 3 year old.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Animism<\/strong>\u00a0is the thought that objects have lifelike qualities. Be sure to watch the video clip in your lesson. It\u2019s an attempt to help young children distinguish between living and non-living objects.<\/p>\n<p>Piaget challenged children\u2019s ability to understand how to classify objects. For example, in this image showing numerous red buttons and a single green button, you have objects that can be classified in several ways.\u00a0If you ask a 3 year old, \u201cWhat are there more of? Red things, green things, or buttons?\u201d The child will probably respond, \u201cRed things\u201d not recognizing that all are buttons.<\/p>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s experiments on\u00a0<strong>conservation<\/strong>\u00a0of matter indicated that children have numerous misconceptions about matter.\u00a0For example, if a container of water is poured into two differently shaped containers so that the water levels now vary, the child may think that the higher water level indicates more liquid. Or a child may think that if one line moves further to the right, it is more or if one row of pennies is widely spaced apart, it has more.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<strong>theory of mind<\/strong>\u00a0is the understanding that other people have different thoughts than one\u2019s own. This realization replaces egocentrism and occurs between ages 3 and 5, typically; or around age 4.\u00a0This knowledge of other\u2019s mental states can aid in social relationships.\u00a0It serves as our everyday mindreading. It can be absent or difficult for children with autism spectrum disorders. Such children may not be able to appreciate other\u2019s mental states, depending on the level of severity of the disorder.<\/p>\n<p>Vocabulary grows at the rate of 10 to 20 new words per day and the child has a vocabulary of approximately 10,000 words by age 6.<br \/>\nHowever, children do not have a complete understanding of words. For example, a child may not understand that the expression, \u201ctime flies\u201d simply means that time passes quickly. Children tend to learn nouns more easily than verbs, even in more verb-friendly languages such as Chinese. Rules of grammar may be misapplied. An example of such over-regularization is found in statements such as \u201cI goed there.\u201d Or, \u201cI doed that!\u201d in which adding ed to the end of the word is used to indicate past tense incorrectly.<\/p>\n<p>Remember Vygotsky\u2019s zone of proximal development? This is the potential a child may achieve through guided participation. Language, both verbal and non-verbal is the vehicle of this guidance. Do you ever talk to yourself? When and why? Chances are you talk to yourself as an adult only when you want to express an emotion or clarify your thoughts. This inner speech is not the same as the speech you use when communicating with others; it\u2019s short and to the point. But when you were learning to use language, you may have struggled as you began to use words to communicate ideas to others. You probably spoke aloud. Then words became directed toward your own behavior. You may have talked to yourself with a sort of running commentary about your own activities and feelings as you learned to think using words. Gradually, this egocentric speech (spoken when alone) became private speech, or thinking in language. Inner speech is only spoken aloud if thoughts need to be clarified or emotion expressed.<\/p>\n<p>Now we turn our attention toward psychosocial development in early childhood. We\u2019ll explore self-concept, gender identity, and family life.<\/p>\n<p>A\u00a0<strong>self-concept<\/strong>\u00a0is one\u2019s own perception or image of self. We aren\u2019t born with a self-concept. It develops through interaction with others. Usually these others are those close to us like parents, siblings, or peers. Let\u2019s look at two theories of self-based on interaction.<\/p>\n<p>Charles Horton Cooley used the metaphor of a mirror or looking-glass when describing this process.\u00a0Our self-concept develops when we look at how those around us respond to us, how we look, what we say, and what we do. We then use their reactions to make self-judgments. If those around us respond favorably to us, we\u2019ll form a positive sense of self. But if those around us respond with criticism and insult, we interpret that as evidence that we are not good or acceptable. But those around us may respond to us based on more than our own performance or worth. Perhaps they don\u2019t notice what we do well or are reluctant to comment on it. As a result, we may have an inaccurate self-concept. And there may be certain periods in life in which we are more self-conscious or concerned with how others view us. Early childhood may be one of those times as children are piecing together a sense of self.<\/p>\n<p>George Herbert Mead also focused on social interaction as important for developing a sense of self. He divided the self into two parts: the \u201cI\u201d or the spontaneous part of the self that is creative and internally motivated, and the \u201cme\u201d or the part of the self that takes into account what other people think.\u00a0The key to living well is to find ways to give expression to the \u201cI\u201d with the approval of the \u201cme\u201d. In other words, find out how to be creative and do what you care about within the guidelines of society. The I is inborn. But the me develops through social interaction and a process called \u201ctaking the role of the other.\u201d\u00a0A child first comes to take the role of a significant other person, typically a parent or sibling. A child, who has been told not to do something, may be found saying \u201cno\u201d to himself.\u00a0Gradually, the child will come to understand how the generalized other, or society at large, comes to view actions. Now a behavior is not just wrong according to a significant other person, it is wrong as a rule of society. In this way, cultural expectations become part of the judgment of self.<\/p>\n<p>Early self-concepts can be quite exaggerated. A child may want to be the biggest, or be able to jump the highest, or to have the longest hair. This exaggerated sense of self is external; the child emphasizes outward expressions and responses in developing a sense of self.<br \/>\nOlder children tend to become more realistic in their sense of self as they start comparing their own behavior with that of others.<\/p>\n<p>Erikson views early childhood as a time of building on autonomy and taking initiative. The child wants to think of an activity and carry it out without interference of others.<\/p>\n<p>Early childhood is also a time of developing gender identification or a sense of self based on gender. You may recall Freud\u2019s theory of the phallic stage in which the child develops a sense of masculinity or femininity.\u00a0Nancy Chordorow believed that mothers promote gender specific behavior in the way they interact with sons and daughters. Daughters are kept close and dependent while sons are encouraged to be independent and assertive.\u00a0Cognitive theory suggests that children actively seek their gender roles through a gender schema in which they sort their world into male and female categories. They ask whether activities, objects, colors, and mannerisms are for boys or girls.<br \/>\nLearning theorists focus on the ways in which children are reinforced for gender stereotypic behavior and how modeling and media images promote gender stereotypic behaviors. The focus is on how society imposes gender expectations on children.<\/p>\n<p>How is gender taught?\u00a0The training is said to begin in infancy as parents treat their sons and daughters differently. In some cultures it means cuddling and speaking to daughters, while directing sons toward outside activities.\u00a0Sons are given more freedom and less supervision than daughters. And daughters may be given unnecessary assistance thus undermining their confidence. Teachers call on boys more often in the classroom and schools may direct students into certain fields of study based on gender rather than abilitFriends have a different code of behavior for girls than for boys. Girls focus on closeness in friendship whereas boys may focus more on competition.<\/p>\n<p>Is gender taught or do children seek out how to behave based on their sex?\u00a0Gender expectations are taught and messages are presented in the media, in the schools, among friends, and by family members. But children also vary in the extent to which they follow the roles presented. There is an interactive role between the individual and society\u2019s expectations with respect to gender. This is called \u201cdoing gender.\u201d It means that we approach these expectations and respond to them in a variety of ways, depending on individual motives and attributes.<\/p>\n<p>Think of your parents. How would you describe their style of parenting? Are they consistent? Were they alike in their approach to discipline and support? Here are two models of parenting styles. You may be able to identify your own parents to some extent in these descriptions. Of course, these models represent clear categories. Real parents often fall somewhere in between.<\/p>\n<p>Diane Baumrind\u2019s model classifies parents in several ways based on the amount and direction of communication they have with their children, their level of warmth, and the level of maturity expected from the child. The\u00a0<strong>authoritarian<\/strong>\u00a0model is a traditional model in which the parents are in control. Children are expected to be obedient and respectful. These parents have low warmth and high maturity demands for their children.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>permissive<\/strong>\u00a0model is one in which parents allow children to make the rules. These parents show a good deal of warmth, but have trouble setting limits.\u00a0The authoritative model is parenting that is strict within reason and that is accompanied by affection. Children have some say in making rules and the exchanges are warm. This is also known as\u00a0<strong>democratic<\/strong>\u00a0parenting and is the model favored by Baumrind. The parenting program called \u201cLove and Logic\u201d is a good example of this model.\u00a0Uninvolved parents are unresponsive and non-demanding. As a consequence, their children may difficulty in social relationships, school, and other areas.<\/p>\n<p>LeMaster\u2019s and DeFrain\u2019s model focuses on what parents are trying to accomplish when parenting. It offers a glimpse at the psychological motivation of the parent suggesting that a parent\u2019s psychological needs rather than the child\u2019s developmental needs are frequently being addressed when parenting.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>martyr<\/strong>\u00a0is the type of parent who will do anything for their child; even those things that children should and could do on their own. This is to help the parent feel in control through self-sacrifice with the expectation that the child will be indebted to them.\u00a0The pal is lonely and wants a friend. The\u00a0<strong>pal<\/strong>\u00a0lets the child do what they want in hopes that the child will spend time with the parent and satisfy their need for companionship.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>police officer\/drill sergeant<\/strong>\u00a0wants direct control and gives the child many obedience tests. Obedience tests are often meaningless activities with the sole purpose of showing the child who is in control. The<strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>teacher-counselor<\/strong>\u00a0parent is one who probably pays too much attention to what the \u201cexperts\u201d have to say about parenting. The teacher-counselor takes all responsibility for the child\u2019s behavior and thinks that if they just do the right things, they can have a perfect child.\u00a0The\u00a0<strong>athletic coach<\/strong>\u00a0is the preferred model. It involves being objective and consistent in parenting and allowing the child to learn by doing.<\/p>\n<p>Which model is best? It turns out that showing concern, warmth, and support is the most important ingredient. The way this care and concern is demonstrated depends on culture.<\/p>\n<p>As of 2009, 64.2 percent of mothers with children under age 6 and 77.3 percent of mothers with children between the ages of 6 and 17 worked outside the home in the United States. Since the dramatic increase of women in the labor force, we\u2019ve seen many studies done to evaluate the impact of childcare on child development. Most of this attention has been devoted to looking at formal preschools and day care programs and the teacher-child ratios, type of environments, and activities available. The conclusion has been that day care that is stimulating and provides adequate attention to children is beneficial and sometimes superior to the world of children staying at home. In some parts of the world, child care concerns are more about safety and healthcare. Market Women in Liberia are women who sell small items as street or market vendors. These women are providers for their families and also take care of their children. Day care is not available to them so their children accompany them to the markets. These markets are crowded and often near waste dumps. Recently, there has been a nationwide effort to improve the conditions for children in the market places and to offer social services such as nutrition and health care for the children. You can learn more in your reading. Certainly, childcare concerns are varied throughout the world.<\/p>\n<p>Some amount of stress is normal in the lives of children. Normal stress includes everyday frustrations and disappointments and minor illness. These stressors can in fact be good life lessons for children and do not cause harm.\u00a0But toxic stress is long-term and undermines a child\u2019s sense of safety and support. This might come from living in an abusive household or one filled with neglect. Or it might be due to the lack of safety and fear that results from living in a crime-ridden community or with war. Prolonged stress leads to the production of stress hormones such as cortisol. Normally, these hormones help the body prepare to take action and get out of harm\u2019s way. But prolonged exposure reduces our immunity to disease and leads to problems with digestion, blood pressure, and muscle tensions.\u00a0In early childhood, our brains are building wiring systems in response to our environments. A child who undergoes chronic, intense stress can develop a low threshold to stress within the brain circuitry. Such a child may be nervous or hyper-vigilant.\u00a0Having a caring, supportive parent or other caregiver can reduce the impact of toxic stress.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-262\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Early Childhood. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura  Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/youtu.be\/9sOU_WcpAbY\">http:\/\/youtu.be\/9sOU_WcpAbY<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: OCL. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube license<\/li><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Early Childhood\",\"author\":\"Laura  Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/youtu.be\/9sOU_WcpAbY\",\"project\":\"OCL\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube license\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-262","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":261,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/262","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/74"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/262\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":821,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/262\/revisions\/821"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/261"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/262\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=262"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=262"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=262"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-lifespandevelopment2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=262"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}