{"id":125,"date":"2017-05-16T19:48:46","date_gmt":"2017-05-16T19:48:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-massmedia\/chapter\/6-3-the-reciprocal-nature-of-music-and-culture\/"},"modified":"2019-02-14T15:00:24","modified_gmt":"2019-02-14T15:00:24","slug":"6-3-the-reciprocal-nature-of-music-and-culture","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-massmedia\/chapter\/6-3-the-reciprocal-nature-of-music-and-culture\/","title":{"raw":"6.3 The Reciprocal Nature of Music and Culture","rendered":"6.3 The Reciprocal Nature of Music and Culture"},"content":{"raw":"
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Learning Objective<\/h3>\r\n
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  1. Identify ways in which culture and music have influenced each other.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    The tightknit relationship between music and culture is almost impossible to overstate. For example, policies on immigration, war, and the legal system can influence artists and the type of music they create and distribute. Music may then influence cultural perceptions about race, morality, and gender that can, in turn, influence the way people feel about those policies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Cultural Influences on Music<\/h2>\r\n

    The evolution of popular music in the United States in the 20th century was shaped by a myriad of cultural influences. Rapidly shifting demographics brought previously independent cultures into contact and also created new cultures and subcultures, and music evolved to reflect these changes. Among the most important cultural influences on music are migration, the evolution of youth culture, and racial integration.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Migration<\/h2>\r\n

    One of the major cultural influences on the popular music industry over the past century is migration. In 1910, 89 percent of Black Americans still lived in the South, most of them in rural farming areas (Weingroff, 2011). Three years later, a series of disastrous events devastated the cotton industry. World cotton prices plummeted, a boll weevil beetle infestation destroyed large areas of crops, and in 1915, flooding destroyed many of the houses and crops of farmers along the Mississippi River. Already suffering from the restrictive \u201cJim Crow\u201d laws that segregated schools, restaurants, hotels, and hospitals, Black sharecroppers began to look to the North for a more prosperous lifestyle. Northern states were enjoying an economic boom as a result of an increased demand for industrial goods because of the war in Europe. They were also in need of labor because the war had slowed the rate of foreign immigration to Northern cities. Between 1915 and 1920, as many as 1 million Black individuals moved to Northern cities in search of jobs, closely followed by another million throughout the following decade (Nebraska Studies, 2010). The mass exodus of Black farmers from the South became known as the Great Migration<\/a><\/span>, and by 1960, 75 percent of all Black Americans lived in cities (Emerging Minds, 2005). The Great Migration had a huge impact on political, economic, and cultural life in the North, and popular music reflected this cultural change.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"2500\"]\"image\"<\/a> Figure 6.13\u00a0During the Great Migration, the 12 states in blue had the largest population growth of Black individuals, while the states in red had the 10 largest net losses (Martin).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Some of the Black individuals who moved to Northern cities came from the Mississippi Delta<\/a><\/span>, home of the blues. The most popular destination was Chicago. Delta-born pianist Eddie Boyd later told Living Blues<\/em> magazine, \u201cI thought of coming to Chicago where I could get away from some of that racism and where I would have an opportunity to, well, do something with my talent\u2026. It wasn\u2019t peaches and cream, man, but it was a hell of a lot better than down there where I was born (Szatmary).\u201d At first, the migrants brought their style of country blues to the city. Characterized by the guitar and the harmonica, the Delta blues was identified by its rhythmic structure and strong vocals. Migrant musicians were heavily influenced by Delta blues musicians such as Charley Patton and legendary guitarist Robert Johnson. However, as the urban setting began to influence the migrants\u2019 style, they started to record a hybrid of blues, vaudeville, and swing, including the boogie-woogie and rolling-bass piano. Mississippi-born guitarist Muddy Waters, who moved to Chicago in the early 1940s, revolutionized the blues by combining his Delta roots with an electric guitar and amplifier. He did so partly out of necessity, since he could barely make himself heard in crowded Chicago clubs with an acoustic guitar (Chicago Blues Guitar). Waters\u2019s style was peppier and more buoyant than the sullen country blues. His plugged-in electric blues became the hallmark of the Chicago blues<\/a><\/span> style, influencing countless other musicians and creating the underpinnings of rock and roll. Other migrant bluesmen helped to create regional variations of the blues all around the country, including John Lee Hooker in Detroit, Michigan, and T-Bone Walker in Los Angeles, California.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Youth Culture<\/h2>\r\n

    Prior to 1945, most music was created with adults in mind, and teenage musical tastes were barely a consideration. Young adults had few freedoms\u2014most males were expected to join the military or get a job to support their fledgling families, while most females were expected to marry young and have children. Few young adults attended college, and personal freedom was limited. Following World War II, this situation changed drastically. A booming economy helped create an American middle class, which created an opening for a youth consumer culture. Unsavory memories of the war discouraged some parents from forcing their children into the military, and many emphasized enjoying life and having a good time. As a result, teenagers found they had a lot more freedom. This new liberalized culture allowed teenagers to make decisions for themselves, and, for the first time, many had the financial means to do so. Whereas many adults enjoyed the traditional sounds of Tin Pan Alley, teens were beginning to listen to rhythm and blues songs played by radio disc jockeys such as Alan Freed. Increased racial integration within the younger generation made them more accepting of Black musicians and their music, which was considered \u201ccool,\u201d and provided a welcome escape from the daunting political and social tension caused by Cold War anxieties. The wide availability of radios, juke boxes, and 45 rpm records exposed this new style of rock and roll music to a broad teenage audience.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1217\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"450\"]\"6.3.0\"<\/a> Figure 6.14\u00a0The popularity of American Bandstand made host Dick Clark an influential tastemaker in pop music. Wikimedia Commons - public domain.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Once teenagers had the buying power to influence record sales, record companies began to notice. Between 1950 and 1959, record sales in the United States skyrocketed from $189 million to nearly $600 million (Szatmary). The 45 rpm vinyl records that were introduced in the late 1940s were an affordable option for teens with allowances. Dick Clark, a radio presenter in Philadelphia, soon tuned in to the new teenage tastes. Sensing an opportunity to tap in to a potentially lucrative market, he acquired enough advertising support to turn local hit music telecast Bandstand<\/em> into a national television phenomenon.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1218\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"443\"]\"6.3.1\"<\/a> Figure 6.15\u00a0Teen heartthrob Fabian was molded to fit teenage musical tastes in order to maximize record sales. Otto Caldwell - Fabian Forte - CC BY-NC 2.0.[\/caption]\r\n

    The result was the launch of American Bandstand<\/em> in 1957, a music TV show that featured a group of teenagers dancing to current hit records. The show\u2019s popularity prompted record producers<\/a><\/span> to create a legion of rock and roll acts specifically designed to appeal to a teenage audience, including Fabian and Frankie Avalon (Grimes, 2011). During its almost 40-year run, American Bandstand<\/em> was a prominent influence on teenage fashions and musical tastes and, in turn, reflected the contemporary youth culture.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Racial Integration<\/h2>\r\n

    Following the Great Migration, racial tensions increased in Northern cities. Whereas many Northerners had previously been unconcerned with the issue of race relations in the South, they found themselves confronted with the very real issue of having to compete for jobs with Black migrant workers. Black workers found themselves pushed into undesirable neighborhoods, often living in crowded, unsanitary slums where they were charged exorbitant rates by unscrupulous landlords. During the 1940s, racial tensions boiled over into race riots, most notably in Detroit. The city\u2019s 1943 riot caused the deaths of 34 people, 25 of whom were Black (Gilcrest, 1993).<\/p>\r\n

    Frustrated with inequalities in the legal system that distinguished Black and White individuals, members of the civil rights movement<\/a><\/span> pushed for racial equality. In 1948, an executive order granted by President Harry Truman integrated the military. The move toward equality gained further momentum in 1954, with the U.S. Supreme Court decision to end segregation<\/a><\/span> in public schools in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education<\/em>. The civil rights movement escalated throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s, aided by highly publicized events such as Rosa Parks\u2019s refusal to give up her seat on a bus to a White passenger in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955. In 1964, Congress passed the most sweeping civil rights legislation since the Civil War, forbidding discrimination in public places and authorizing financial aid to enable school desegregation.<\/p>\r\n

    Although racist attitudes did not change overnight, the cultural changes brought on by the civil rights movement laid the groundwork for the creation of an integrated society. The Motown sound developed by Berry Gordy Jr. in the 1960s both reflected and furthered this change. Gordy believed that by coaching talented but unpolished Black artists, he could make them acceptable to mainstream culture. He hired a professional to head an in-house finishing school, teaching his acts how to move gracefully, speak politely, and use proper posture (Michigan Rock and Roll Legends). Gordy\u2019s commercial success with gospel-based pop acts such as the Supremes, the Temptations, the Four Tops, and Martha and the Vandellas reflected the extent of racial integration in the mainstream music industry. Gordy\u2019s most successful act, the Supremes, achieved 12 No. 1 singles on the Billboard Hot 100<\/em> chart.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1219\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\"]\"6.3.2\"<\/a> Figure 6.16\u00a0The commercial success of Motown girl group the Supremes reflected changing attitudes toward race in the United States. Wikimedia Commons - public domain.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Musical Influences on Culture<\/h2>\r\n

    Even though pop music is frequently characterized as a negative influence on society, particularly with respect to youth culture, it also has positive effects on culture. Many artists in the 1950s and 1960s pushed the boundaries of socially acceptable behavior with sexually charged movements and androgynous appearances. Without these precedents, acts like the Rolling Stones or David Bowie may have never made the transition into mainstream success.<\/p>\r\n

    On the other hand, over the past 50 years, critics have blamed rock and roll for juvenile delinquency, heavy metal for increased teenage aggression, and gangsta rap for a rise in gang warfare among young urban males. One recent study claimed that youths who listen to music with sexually explicit lyrics were more likely to have sex at an early age, stating that exposure to lots of sexually degrading music gives teens \u201ca specific message about sex (MSNBC, 2006).\u201d In addition to its effects on youth culture, popular music has contributed to shifting cultural values regarding race, morality, and gender.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Race<\/h2>\r\n

    As the music of Chuck Berry and Little Richard gained popularity among White teens in the United States during the 1950s, most of the new rock acts were signed to independent labels, and larger companies such as RCA were losing their share of the market.<\/p>\r\n

    To capitalize on the public\u2019s enthusiasm for rock and roll and to prevent the loss of further potential profits, big record companies signed White artists to cover the songs of Black artists. The songs were often censored for the mainstream market by the removal of any lyrics that referenced sex, alcohol, or drugs. Pat Boone was the most successful cover artist of the era, releasing songs originally sung by artists such as Fats Domino, the El Dorados, Little Richard, and Big Joe Turner. Releasing a cover of a Black performer\u2019s song by a White performer was known as hijacking<\/a><\/span> a hit, and this practice usually left black artists signed to independent labels broke. Because large companies such as RCA could widely promote and distribute their records\u2014six of Boone\u2019s recordings reached the No. 1 spot on the Billboard chart\u2014their records frequently outsold the original versions. Many White artists and producers would also take writing credit for the songs they covered and would buy the rights to songs from Black writers without giving them royalties<\/a><\/span> or songwriting credit. This practice fueled racism within the music industry. Independent record producer Danny Kessler of Okeh Records said, \u201cThe odds for a black record to crack through were slim. If the black record began to happen, the chances were that a white artist would cover\u2014and the big stations would play the white records\u2026. There was a color line, and it wasn\u2019t easy to cross (Szatmary).\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    Although cover artists profited from the work of Black R&B singers, occasionally they also helped to promote the original recordings. Many teenagers who heard covers on mainstream radio stations sought out the original artists\u2019 versions, increasing sales and prompting Little Richard to refer to Pat Boone as \u201cthe man who made me a millionaire (Crane, 2005).\u201d Benefiting from covers also worked both ways. In 1962, soul singer Ray Charles covered Don Gibson\u2019s hit \u201cI Just Can\u2019t Stop Loving You,\u201d which became a hit on country and western charts and furthered mainstream acceptance of Black musicians. Other Black artists to cover hits by White performers included Otis Redding, who performed the Rolling Stones hit \u201cSatisfaction,\u201d and Jimi Hendrix, who covered Bob Dylan\u2019s \u201cAll Along the Watchtower.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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    Hijacking Hits<\/h4>\r\n

    Releasing cover versions of hit songs was fairly standard practice before the 1950s because it was advantageous for songwriters and producers to have as many artists as possible sing their records to maximize royalties<\/a><\/span>. Several versions of the same song often appeared in the music charts at the same time. However, the practice acquired racial connotations during the 1950s when larger music labels hijacked R&B hits, using their financial strength to promote the cover version at the expense of the original recording, which often exploited Black talent. As a result, many 1950s R&B artists lost out on royalties<\/a><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n

    Two contemporary Black performers who were victims of this practice were R&B singer LaVern Baker and blues singer Arthur \u201cBig Boy\u201d Crudup. Baker, who was signed with then small-time label Atlantic Records, had been promoted as a pop singer. Because her songs appealed to mainstream audiences, they were ideal for covering, and industry giant Mercury Records took full advantage of this. When Baker released her 1955 hit \u201cTweedle Dee,\u201d Mercury immediately put out its own version, a note-for-note cover sung by White pop singer Georgia Gibbs. Atlantic could not match Mercury\u2019s marketing budget, and Gibbs\u2019s version outsold Baker\u2019s recording, causing her to lose an estimated $15,000 in royalties (Parales, 1997).<\/p>\r\n

    Around the same time, Arthur Crudup was producing hits such as \u201cSo Glad You\u2019re Mine,\u201d \u201cWho\u2019s Been Foolin\u2019 You,\u201d \u201cThat\u2019s All Right Mama,\u201d and \u201cMy Baby Left Me,\u201d which were subsequently released by performers such as Elvis Presley, Creedence Clearwater Revival, and Rod Stewart for huge financial gain, Crudup\u2019s songs made everybody rich\u2014except him. This realization caused him to quit playing altogether in the late 1950s. A later attempt to collect back royalties was unsuccessful (Stanton, 1998). Baker filed a lawsuit in an attempt to revise the Copyright Act of 1909, making it illegal to copy an arrangement verbatim without permission. The lawsuit was unsuccessful, and Gibbs continued to cover Baker\u2019s songs (Dahl).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Morality<\/h2>\r\n

    When Elvis Presley burst onto the rock and roll scene in the mid-1950s, many conservative parents of teenagers all over the United States were horrified. With his gyrating hips and sexually suggestive body movements, Presley was viewed as a threat to the moral well-being of young women. Television critics denounced his performances as vulgar, and on a 1956 appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show<\/em>, cameras filmed him only from the waist up. One critic for the New York Daily News<\/em> wrote that popular music \u201chas reached its lowest depths in the \u2018grunt and groin\u2019 antics of one Elvis Presley (Collins, 2002).\u201d Despite the critics\u2019 opinions, Presley immediately gained a fan base among teenage audiences, particularly adolescent girls, who frequently broke into hysterics at his concerts. Rather than tone down his act, Presley defended his movements as manifestations of the music\u2019s rhythm and beat and continued to gyrate on stage. Liberated from the constraints imposed by morality watchdogs, Presley set a precedent for future rock and roll performers and marked a major transition in popular culture.<\/p>\r\n

    In addition to decrying raunchy onstage performances by rock and roll artists, moralists in the conservative Eisenhower era objected to the sexually suggestive lyrics found in original rock and roll songs. Big Joe Turner\u2019s version of \u201cShake, Rattle, and Roll\u201d used sexual phrases and referred to the bedroom, while Little Richard\u2019s original version of \u201cTutti Frutti\u201d contained the phrase \u201ctutti frutti, loose booty (Hall & Hall, 2006).\u201d Although many of these lyrics were sanitized for mainstream White audiences when they were rereleased as cover versions, the idea that rock and roll was a threat to morality had been firmly implanted in many people\u2019s minds.<\/p>\r\n

    Ironically, many of the controversial key figures in the rock and roll era came from extremely religious backgrounds. Presley was a member of the evangelical First Assembly of God Church, where he acquired his love of gospel music (History Of Rock). Similarly, Ray Charles soaked up gospel influences from his local Baptist church (Walk Of Fame). Jerry Lee Lewis came from a strict Christian background and often struggled to reconcile his religious beliefs with the moral implications of the music he created. During a recording session in 1957, Lewis argued with manager Sam Phillips that the hit song \u201cGreat Balls of Fire\u201d was too \u201csinful\u201d for him to record (History, 1957). The religious backgrounds of the rock and roll pioneers both influenced and challenged moral norms. When Ray Charles recorded \u201cI Got a Woman\u201d in 1955, he reworded the gospel tune \u201cJesus Is All the World to Me,\u201d drawing criticism that the song was sacrilegious. Despite the objections, Charles\u2019s style caught on with other musicians, and his experimentation with merging gospel and R&B resulted in the birth of soul music.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Gender<\/h2>\r\n

    While Presley was revolutionizing people\u2019s notions of sexual freedom and expression, other performers were changing cultural norms regarding gender identity. Dressed in flamboyant clothing with a pompadour hairstyle and makeup, Little Richard was an exotic, androgynous performer who blurred traditional gender boundaries and shocked 1950s audiences with his blatant campiness. Between his wild onstage antics, bisexual tendencies, and love of post-concert orgies, the self-proclaimed \u201cKing and Queen of Rock and Roll\u201d challenged many social conventions of the time (Buckley, 2003). Little Richard\u2019s flamboyant, gender-bending appearance was so outrageous that it was not taken seriously during the 1950s\u2014he was considered an entertainer whose androgynous look bore no relevance to the real world. However, Richard paved the way for future entertainers to shift cultural perceptions of gender. Later musicians such as David Bowie, Prince, and Boy George adopted his outrageous style, frequently appearing on stage wearing glittery costumes and heavy makeup. The popularity of these 1970s and 1980s pop idols, along with other gender-bending performers such as Annie Lennox and Michael Jackson, helped make androgyny more acceptable in mainstream society.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1220\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"550\"]\"6.3<\/a> Figure 6.17\u00a0Gender-bending performers such as Little Richard, David Bowie, Boy George, and Prince helped to change social attitudes toward androgyny. Wikimedia Commons - public domain; Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0; Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0; Wikimedia Commons - CC BY 2.0.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n