No two people live in the exact same environment. The SOIL beneath our feet, the AIR we breathe, and the WATER flowing through our pipes and waterways can all differ greatly, depending on where we live. On top of that, each of us eats different foods, shares our space with different plants and animals, and has access to different medicines and technology.

Except for identical twins, the genetic information that each of us carries deep inside our cells is also unique. Even brothers and sisters have different DNA, because they inherit a different combination of genes from their parents.

Think of your genes and your environment as two sides of the same coin. Together, they play equal roles in your health. Your genes can make you more or less likely to get sick. At the same time, your environment can either protect you or place you at greater risk of developing certain illnesses.

You cannot do much about your genes, but you can take steps to promote a better environment to help live a longer, healthier life. According to some estimates, nearly a quarter of the deaths around the world may be prevented by reducing environmental risks.

Pound for pound, children have increased risks from environmental exposures, because their bodily systems — cardiovascular, digestive, immune, nervous, and others — are still developing. Environmental health researchers now recognize that low level exposures, especially during early developmental growth periods, such as in utero or neonatal, can have long-lasting effects. This research evolution demonstrates that environmental health effects are complex — not a simple relationship between a particular type and amount of exposure and disease. New science shows that combined chemical exposures affect growth and development in ways not previously recognized.

Low birth weight in infants is linked to exposures to low-level arsenic during pregnancy.  Low thyroid-stimulating hormone levels during pregnancy, in both the mother and baby, are associated with exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), commonly used as flame retardants. Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, and are critical to normal development of the baby’s brain and nervous system. Epidemiologic literature also suggests associations of prenatal exposures to heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and arsenic, with increased risk for brain damage, neurodevelopmental problems, congenital malformations, and miscarriage.

Neurodevelopmental and Neurobehavioral Disorders

Prevalence of all developmental disabilities is increasing and research is being conducted to assess how a wide range of chemicals, including certain pesticides; air pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); and metals, such as lead, mercury, and manganese; lead to learning and behavioral deficits. Researchers have also discovered that prenatal exposures, not just those that occur after birth, lead to neurological deficits in children. High prenatal PAH exposure is associated with a lower mental development index score at age 3 (Bayley Scale) and with increased odds of cognitive developmental delay.  In children, high PAH exposure was associated with symptoms of anxiety, depression, and attention problems. Women with higher phthalate exposures during pregnancy report more disruptive behaviors in their children. 7 Phthalates are chemical compounds used in many plastics and some personal care products. Children exposed prenatally to high levels of chlorpyrifos, a pesticide, show both enlargement and thinning of certain brain areas, and have lower intelligence testing scores.

Asthma

Asthma prevalence had increased, especially among urban populations, and costs the U.S. billions annually Discovering asthma triggers will help development of prevention strategies. For example, in the past decade, several researchers, have found that living near dense traffic is associated with asthma or long-lasting problems with lung function in children. Specifically, diesel soot particulate matter is the component of air pollution most responsible for several respiratory problems among inner-city children. Children living in moldy homes are three times more likely to develop asthma by age 7. Early childhood exposure to the chemical bisphenyl A (BPA) is associated with an elevated risk for asthma in young children.

Environment and Autism Risk: More Than Genetics

The prevalence of autism has increased esponentially. Autism is a developmental disorder long attributed to genetic factors. While changes in diagnostic criteria and increased awareness have been thought to contribute to the rising incidence of the disorder, these factors alone cannot explain the dramatic increase in the number of children affected. Researchers have found evidence that links certain environmental exposures with autism risk. For example, living near a freeway may be associated with increased risk of autism, according to a study by a team from the Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, University of Southern California, and University of California, Davis.10Researchers are investigating chemicals in air pollution, such as PAHs, that may affect neurodevelopment and contribute to autism risk. Further research is needed to understand potential gene-exposure interactions and to identify autism prevention strategies.

Childhood Leukemia and Benzene

Leukemia is the most common type of childhood cancer, placing considerable stress and financial burden on affected families. Environmental causes of childhood cancer, although long suspected, are difficult to pin down. But, in a breakthrough discovery, benzene, known to be a human carcinogen, was linked to leukemia by the University of California, Berkeley. Benzene’s association with childhood leukemia stems from its toxicity to certain cells. Researchers say there is probably no safe level of exposure to benzene, and all exposures constitute some risk.

Policy Advances Based on Science

Concerns about the health effects of hazardous environmental exposures have led to federal and local policies designed to inform and protect the public. Nationally, the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards limit air pollutants emitted from utilities. This policy will help avoid 130,000 asthma attacks every year. In New York City, the passage of two landmark bills in 2005 was bolstered by the testimony of Columbia University researchers, who linked smaller birth size and prenatal pesticide exposure. The bills reduce exposure to certain pesticides through better notification and a reinforced commitment to adopting integrated pest management strategies.

In any locality, reduction in children’s air pollution exposures can be achieved by considering local traffic volume, not just regional air quality, when siting schools, sports fields, or new homes. Some jurisdictions have called for less idling in school bus operations as a way to reduce diesel fume exposures at minimal cost.

There are many environmental factors that can influence our health, some of which will be discussed here.

Sunlight

The sun, sunlamps, and tanning booths all give off ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Exposure to UV radiation causes early aging of the skin and skin damage that can lead to skin cancer.

People of all ages and skin tones should limit the amount of time they spend in the sun, especially between mid-morning and late afternoon, and avoid other sources of UV radiation, such as tanning beds. It is important to keep in mind that UV radiation is reflected by sand, water, snow, and ice and can go through windshields and windows. Even though skin cancer is more common among people with a light skin tone, people of all skin tones can develop skin cancer, including those with dark skin.

Acrylamide

Acrylamide is a chemical widely used during the manufacturing of paper, dye, and other industrial products. It can also be formed when certain foods are cooked at high temperatures. Frying, baking, or roasting certain foods, such as potatoes or grains, can create acrylamide. French fries and potato chips, for example, may have measurable acrylamide levels. Acrylamide is also found in cigarette smoke.

The two-year National Toxicology Program (NTP) studies of acrylamide, given in an animal’s drinking water, found clear evidence of carcinogenic activity in male and female rats and mice, based on tumors in multiple sites. For example, tumors were found in the mammary and thyroid glands in female rats, and the reproductive organs in male rats. Tumors of the lung were among those observed in mice. Additionally, NTP conducted parallel studies on glycidamide, which was also found to be a multisite carcinogen in both male and female rats and mice. The types of tumors induced by glycidamide were the same as those seen in acrylamide. Findings of clear evidence of carcinogenic activity in both sexes of rats and mice, and at multiple sites, is relatively uncommon and indicative of a strong carcinogenic response.

Agriculture and Pesticides

Farmers have a higher risk for developing some cancers, including prostate cancer. Gloves Matter! Use of chemically resistant gloves can reduce pesticide exposure 50-80%.

Arsenic

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust. It is found in water, air, food, and soil. There are two general forms of arsenic — organic and inorganic. Inorganic arsenic, which affects the drinking water of millions of people worldwide, has been shown to be a human carcinogen.

Asbestos: Worker and Employer Guide to Hazards and Recommended Controls

Asbestos is a mineral fiber that occurs in rock and soil. Because of its fiber strength and heat resistance, asbestos has been used in many materials produced for building or home construction, particularly if they were manufactured prior to 1980, such as shingles, ceiling and floor tiles, and attic and pipe insulation. If these materials are broken, crushed, or disturbed, the asbestos fibers may be released into the air and become a health hazard. High exposures to asbestos may occur during demolition and rebuilding.

Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Environment

Research shows that both genetics and environmental factors likely play a role in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) supports research to discover how the environment may influence ASD.

Bisphenol A (BPA)

Bisphenol A, more commonly known as BPA, is a chemical widely used to make polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. One reason people may be concerned about BPA is because human exposure to BPA is widespread. The 2003-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found detectable levels of BPA in 93% of 2517 urine samples from people six years and older. The CDC NHANES data are considered representative of exposures in the United States. Another reason for concern, especially for parents, may be because some animal studies report effects in fetuses and newborns exposed to BPA.

Cancer-Causing Viruses

Given that about 12 percent of cancers worldwide are linked to viruses, and there are no vaccines available for most of these viruses, prevention is critical for reducing potential cancer risks. These viruses are more likely to lead to cancer in people that have weakened immune systems, or immunosuppression.

• Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)
• Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)
• Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
• Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)
• Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV)
• hepatitis B,
• hepatitis C, and
• some human papillomaviruses.

Dioxins

Dioxins are mainly byproducts of industrial practices. They are produced through a variety of incineration processes, including improper municipal waste incineration and burning of trash, and can be released into the air during natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanoes. Almost every living creature has been exposed to dioxins or dioxin-like compounds (DLCs). Dioxin is a known cancer-causing agent, Additionally, dioxin exposure has been linked to a number of other diseases, including type 2 diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and an acne-like skin disease. Dioxins can cause developmental problems in children, lead to reproductive and infertility problems in adults, result in miscarriages, damage the immune system, and interfere with hormones.

Today, people are exposed to dioxins primarily by eating food, in particular animal products, contaminated by these chemicals. Dioxins are absorbed and stored in fat tissue and, therefore, accumulate in the food chain. More than 90 percent of human exposure is through food.2

The following steps can reduce the potential for exposure to dioxin:

• Remove skin from fish and chicken
• Select cuts of meat that are naturally lean, or trim visible fat
• When catching your own fish, check local fishing advisories, as there may be consumption limits for particular kinds of fish, in particular bodies of water where local contamination has occurred
• Use fat-free or low-fat milk and use butter in moderation

Endocrine Disruptors

Endocrine disruptors are naturally occurring compounds or man-made substances that may mimic or interfere with the function of hormones in the body. Endocrine disruptors may turn on, shut off, or modify signals that hormones carry, which may affect the normal functions of tissues and organs.

The endocrine system is one of the body’s main communication networks and is responsible for controlling and coordinating numerous body functions.  Hormones are first produced by the endocrine tissues, such as the ovaries, testes, adrenal, pituitary, thyroid, and pancreas, and then secreted into the blood to act as the body’s chemical messengers where they direct communication and coordination among other tissues throughout the body. For example, hormones work with the nervous system, reproductive system, kidneys, gut, liver, and fat to help maintain and control: • Body energy levels • Reproduction • Growth and development • Internal balance of body systems, or homeostasis • Response to surroundings, stress, and injury

Endocrine disrupting chemicals may interfere with the body’s own hormone signals because of their structure and activity.

How are people exposed to endocrine disruptors? People may be exposed to endocrine disruptors through the food and beverages they consume, medicine they take, pesticides they apply, and cosmetics they use. So, exposures may be through the diet, air, skin, and water. Some environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals, such as the pesticide DDT, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) used in electrical equipment, are highly persistent and slow to degrade in the environment making them potentially hazardous over an extended period of time.

Flame Retardants

Flame retardants are chemicals that are added or applied to materials in order to slow or prevent the start or growth of fire.

Flame retardants are being studied because of their abundance in the environment and concerns about their impact on human health, especially to children who can be easily exposed to them through hand-to-mouth contact. There is growing evidence that many flame retardant chemicals can affect the endocrine, immune, reproductive, and nervous systems. Some animal studies have shown that long-term exposure to flame retardants can lead to cancer.

Researchers are also beginning to look at the potential association between flame retardants and other health outcomes, including thyroid disruption and obesity, and the role they may be playing in human development. More research needs to be done to understand the effect these chemicals are having on human health.

Lead and Your Health

How does lead get into the body? Lead can get into your body in two ways — through breathing it in or by eating it. For example, lead can enter the body through eating or inhaling paint dust or chips. The soil around your home can pick up lead from sources such as exterior paint. Lead can also enter your drinking water through your plumbing. Who is most vulnerable to the effects of lead? Both children and adults are vulnerable to the effects of lead. Young children under the age of 5 are particularly vulnerable, because their body, brain, and metabolism are still developing. Two-year-olds tend to have the highest blood level concentration, because they put many things into their mouth, including toys or other products that may contain lead.

What are the effects of lead in children? Exposure to lead can have a wide range of effects on a child’s development and behavior. Blood lead levels less than 10 micrograms per deciliter (μg/dL) are associated with increased behavioral effects, delayed puberty, and decreases in hearing, cognitive performance, and postnatal growth or height. Some of these health effects are found even at low blood lead levels less than 5 μg/dL, including lower IQ scores, decreased academic achievement, and increases in both behavioral problems and attention related behaviors. There is a wide range of lead associated behavioral effects in the area of attention. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one example on the more severe end of the spectrum.

Mold

Mold is a visible group of fungi that forms and spreads on various kinds of damp or decaying organic matter, such as dry wall and other building materials. There are many different types of mold, with some 1.5 million species estimated to exist. Some people may refer to mold as mildew. Both are terms used to describe fungal growth.

It is well established that allergic reactions to molds are the most commonly experienced health effects in humans.1 Symptoms can range from sneezing to wheezing. Individuals without allergies may also experience symptoms, including eye irritation, sore throat, congestion, skin rash, and headaches. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) conducted a comprehensive literature review and analysis, and found there was sufficient evidence to link mold and other factors related to damp indoor environments with some upper respiratory tract symptoms, coughing, wheezing, and asthma in sensitized persons or people who already have respiratory problems, the elderly, or the very young. However, NAS found there was not enough evidence to make conclusions for many other health outcomes, including rheumatologic and other inflammatory diseases, neurological symptoms, cancer, and reproductive effects.2

Most molds are not harmful to healthy humans. Some molds are used to produce foods or medications, such as penicillin. Allergic reactions to molds are perhaps the most commonly experienced health effects.

Overpopulation

Why do we discuss population when we discuss environmental health? How does population affect environmental health? You may not have thought about these questions previously, but the answers are actually fairly simple. Population growth increases utilization of and competition for resources.

From a global perspective, population growth has been impacted by factors such as lack of family planning resources and negative influences on breastfeeding. Exclusive breastfeeding helps control population growth as it delays the return of fertility following childbirth.  Formula marketing and sample distribution has been a significant negative influence on breastfeeding rates.

Although we are an industrialized country, our rate of population growth is of concern.  Each year the US adds thousands of people per day. Why is this an issue?   More humans on the earth means the need for more resources such as space, shelter, food and water.

Solid Waste

As the population grows, there is also the problem of more waste.  In many cases, individuals consistently accumulate material goods. Disposable items are popular and there is a lack of awareness of the impact of generating so much refuse.  We also have significant problems with waste in our oceans, lakes and rivers.  This is not only a contaminant issue, but a safety issue for wildlife that can become entangled in items that are in these waters. Do you know exactly where your garbage goes?  Is it biodegradable? How long does it take to decompose? If you could only store your trash on your property, where would you put it? How much space would it take up over the years? You likely put it in a garbage tote or dumpster, someone takes it away and you forget about it.  Unfortunately, it has to go somewhere, and trying to figure out where is a significant concern.

In addition to population growth as an issue, the amount of resources utilized by the additional people also has an environmental impact, otherwise known as an ecological footprint.  An ecological footprint is a measure of human impact on Earth’s ecosystems. It’s typically measured in area of land and natural resources consumed and utilized for existence of the human population each year.

The population continues to grow, but resources are not expanding to meet that growth.  The carrying capacity of the earth is the largest population that can be supported indefinitely given the resources available in the environment.  The US ranks toward the top of the list with one of the largest ecological footprints, exerting a very high impact on resources and ecosystems.

We, as individuals, also have what is called a carbon footprint, which is the amount of greenhouse gases produced by a particular human’s activity. How much emission are you, as an individual, responsible for? There are a number of carbon footprint calculators available that can give you an estimate on the web.

Although some for-profit industries have tried to negate research on the negative effects of emissions, the evidence is too strong to deny that human behaviors are having a significant impact on our environment.

Climate and Human Health

Climate change refers to major decadal changes in the earth’s temperature, rainfall, snow, and wind patterns. Human activities are mainly responsible for the drastic warming we’ve seen in recent decades. We release greenhouse gases (GHGs) as a result of burning fossil fuels (like coal and oil), using energy to drive, using electricity to light and heat our homes, and through other activities that support our quality of life. GHGs trap heat in the atmosphere, causing the earth’s temperature to increase. As a result of the warming climate, sea levels are rising, glaciers are melting, and precipitation patterns are changing. Climate change affects many areas of life, including health, water resources, food production, agriculture, forestry, wildlife and energy supply.

A changing climate impacts our health and wellbeing. The major public health organizations of the world have said that climate change is a critical public health problem. Climate change makes many existing diseases and conditions worse, but it may also help introduce new pests and pathogens into new regions or communities. As the planet warms, oceans expand and the sea level rises, floods and droughts become more frequent and intense, and heat waves and hurricanes become more severe. The most vulnerable people—children, the elderly, the poor, and those with underlying health conditions—are at increased risk for health effects from climate change. Climate change also stresses our health care infrastructure and delivery systems.

Steps can be taken to lessen climate change (“mitigation”) and reduce its impacts on our health and the health of future generations (“adaptation”). Some of these steps can yield benefits for our health, environment, economy, and society at the same time. The federal government has called for efforts to support adaptation and mitigation of climate change to create healthier, more sustainable communities.

Children are more susceptible to environmental exposures than adults owing to their developing body systems. Consequently they are more vulnerable to such exposures. There is a growing concern about the effects of climate change on children’s health. There is need to understand how children may be exposed and how they may be affected by the human health threats posed by climate change.

Climate Change and Human Health

 Health Impacts Vary with Age and Life Stage

People experience different inherent sensitivities to the impacts of climate change at different ages and life stages. For example, the very young and the very old are particularly sensitive to climate-related health impacts.

The influences of weather and climate on human health are significant and varied. Exposure to health hazards related to climate change affects different people and different communities to different degrees. While often assessed individually, exposure to multiple climate change threats can occur simultaneously, resulting in compounding or cascading health impacts.

With climate change, the frequency, severity, duration, and location of weather and climate phenomena—like rising temperatures, heavy rains and droughts, and some other kinds of severe weather—are changing. This means that areas already experiencing health-threatening weather and climate phenomena, such as severe heat or hurricanes, are likely to experience worsening impacts, such as higher temperatures and increased storm intensity, rainfall rates, and storm surge. It also means that some locations will experience new climate-related health threats. For example, areas previously unaffected by toxic algal blooms or waterborne diseases because of cooler water temperatures may face these hazards in the future as increasing water temperatures allow the organisms that cause these health risks to thrive. Even areas that currently experience these health threats may see a shift in the timing of the seasons that pose the greatest risk to human health.

Climate change can therefore affect human health in two main ways: first, by changing the severity or frequency of health problems that are already affected by climate or weather factors; and second, by creating unprecedented or unanticipated health problems or health threats in places where they have not previously occurred.

Temperature-Related Death and Illness

Figure ES3: Projected Changes in Deaths in U.S. Cities by Season

Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases lead to an increase of both average and extreme temperatures. This is expected to lead to an increase in deaths and illness from heat and a potential decrease in deaths from cold (see Figure ES3), particularly for a number of communities especially vulnerable to these changes, such as children, the elderly, and economically disadvantaged groups. Days that are hotter than the average seasonal temperature in the summer or colder than the average seasonal temperature in the winter cause increased levels of illness and death by compromising the body’s ability to regulate its temperature or by inducing direct or indirect health complications. Loss of internal temperature control can result in a cascade of illnesses, including heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and hyperthermia in the presence of extreme heat, and hypothermia and frostbite in the presence of extreme cold. Temperature extremes can also worsen chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, cerebrovascular disease, and diabetes-related conditions. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures is associated with increased hospital admissions for cardiovascular, kidney, and respiratory disorders.

Air Quality Impacts

Changes in the climate affect the air we breathe, both indoors and outdoors. The changing climate has modified weather patterns, which in turn have influenced the levels and location of outdoor air pollutants such as ground-level ozone (O3) (see Figure ES4) and fine particulate matter. Increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) levels also promote the growth of plants that release airborne allergens (aeroallergens). Finally, these changes to outdoor air quality and aeroallergens also affect indoor air quality as both pollutants and aeroallergens infiltrate homes, schools, and other buildings. Poor air quality, whether outdoors or indoors, can negatively affect the human respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Higher pollen concentrations and longer pollen seasons can increase allergic sensitization and asthma episodes and thereby limit productivity at work and school.

Extreme Events

Climate change projections show that there will be continuing increases in the occurrence and severity of some extreme events by the end of the century, while for other extremes the links to climate change are more uncertain. Some regions of the United States have already experienced costly impacts—in terms of both lives lost and economic damages from observed changes in the frequency, intensity, or duration of certain extreme events. While it is intuitive that extremes can have health impacts such as death or injury during an event (for example, drowning during floods), health impacts can also occur before or after an extreme event, as individuals may be involved in activities that put their health at risk, such as disaster preparation and post-event cleanup. Health risks may also arise long after the event, or in places outside the area where the event took place, as a result of damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of infrastructure and public services, social and economic impacts, environmental degradation, and other factors. Extreme events also pose unique health risks if multiple events occur simultaneously or in succession in a given location. The severity and extent of health effects associated with extreme events depend on the physical impacts of the extreme events themselves as well as the unique human, societal, and environmental circumstances at the time and place where events occur.

Vector-Borne Diseases

Figure ES6: Changes in Lyme Disease Case Report Distribution

Vector-borne diseases are illnesses that are transmitted by vectors, which include mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. These vectors can carry infective pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, which can be transferred from one host (carrier) to another. The seasonality, distribution, and prevalence of vector-borne diseases are influenced significantly by climate factors, primarily high and low temperature extremes and precipitation patterns. Climate change is likely to have both short- and long-term effects on vector-borne disease transmission and infection patterns, affecting both seasonal risk and broad geographic changes in disease occurrence over decades. While climate variability and climate change both alter the transmission of vector-borne diseases, they will likely interact with many other factors, including how pathogens adapt and change, the availability of hosts, changing ecosystems and land use, demographics, human behavior, and adaptive capacity. These complex interactions make it difficult to predict the effects of climate change on vector-borne diseases.

Water-Related Illness

Figure ES7: Links between Climate Change, Water Quantity and Quality, and Human Exposure to Water-Related Illness

Across most of the United States, climate change is expected to affect fresh and marine water resources in ways that will increase people’s exposure to water-related contaminants that cause illness (see Figure ES7). Water-related illnesses include waterborne diseases caused by pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Water-related illnesses are also caused by toxins produced by certain harmful algae and cyanobacteria and by chemicals introduced into the environment by human activities. Exposure occurs through ingestion, inhalation, or direct contact with contaminated drinking or recreational water and through consumption of contaminated fish and shellfish. Factors related to climate change—including temperature, precipitation and related runoff, hurricanes, and storm surge—affect the growth, survival, spread, and virulence or toxicity of agents (causes) of water-related illness. Whether or not illness results from exposure to contaminated water, fish, or shellfish is dependent on a complex set of factors, including human behavior and social determinants of health that may affect a person’s exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Water resource, public health, and environmental agencies in the United States provide many public health safeguards to reduce risk of exposure and illness even if water becomes contaminated. These include water quality monitoring, drinking water treatment standards and practices, beach closures, and issuing advisories for boiling drinking water and harvesting shellfish.

Food Safety, Nutrition, and Distribution

A safe and nutritious food supply is a vital component of food security. The impacts of climate change on food production, prices, and trade for the United States and globally have been widely examined, including in the recent report “Climate Change, Global Food Security, and the U.S. Food System.” An overall finding of that report was that “climate change is very likely to affect global, regional, and local food security by disrupting food availability, decreasing access to food, and making utilization more difficult.” This chapter focuses on some of the less reported aspects of food security, specifically the impacts of climate change on food safety, nutrition, and distribution. There are two overarching means by which increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) and climate change alter safety, nutrition, and distribution of food. The first is associated with rising global temperatures and the subsequent changes in weather patterns and extreme climate events. Current and anticipated changes in climate and the physical environment have consequences for contamination, spoilage, and the disruption of food distribution. The second pathway is through the direct CO2 “fertilization” effect on plant photosynthesis. Higher concentrations of CO2 stimulate growth and carbohydrate production in some plants, but can lower the levels of protein and essential minerals in a number of widely consumed crops, including wheat, rice, and potatoes, with potentially negative implications for human nutrition.

Environmental Impact of Food Production and Consumption

Food production in our society is a significant contributor to environmental issues.  Animal-based food production has the largest impact, via greenhouse gas emission, and land and water utilization.  Consumer demand for these foods results in continued production and utilization of resources.

In addition to the various health issues that are a result of continued climate change, there will also be a negative impact on food production with reduced yields due to rising temperatures and reduced viable land resulting in food insecurity. Meat and dairy consumption are the biggest dietary contributors to global warming. A shift to dietary consumption higher in plant-based foods would reduce the environmental impact of current production and consumption.  A review by Hallstrom et al indicates that dietary change can reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and land use demand by up to 50%. Reductions in chronic disease was an outcome as well. 6 A shift to more local food sources would also decrease the impact on climate change with a reduction in emissions as a result of transporting food.

Environmental Health Strategies:

How Can We Protect Our Health?

The extent and speed of global climate change is driven by human activities. If we continue emitting GHGs at or above the current rate, the average global temperature is expected to increase by 3° to 7°F by 2100. Although this increase might seem minor, it’s a larger and faster increase than anything we’ve seen over the past 10,000 years. As the earth’s temperature continues to warm, the effects of global climate change are expected to be more severe:

• Heat waves will be more common, severe, and longer lasting
• Storms will be stronger
• Flooding and damage in coastal areas will increase

In order to slow the rate of global climate change, we need to lessen the amount of greenhouse gasses being emitted. We produce GHG emissions through many of our daily activities. The amount of emissions we each contribute to the earth varies. It depends on our location, habits, and personal choices.

Here are some ways to save energy and reduce GHG emissions:

Change your lights

• Replace regular light bulbs with energy-efficient bulbs

Heat and cool smartly

• Clean air filters regularly
• Get your heating and cooling equipment tuned annually by a licensed contractor
• Replace old heating and cooling equipment with high efficiency models and make sure they’re properly sized and installed

Use green power

• Use green power, which is environmentally friendly electricity that’s made from renewable energy sources like wind and sun
• Buy your power from a company that uses green power
• Create a greener home by installing solar panels and researching incentives for renewable energy in your state

Use water efficiently

• Turn the water off while shaving or brushing teeth
• Fix leaky toilets and faucets

Drive smart

• Choose the cleanest, most fuel-efficient vehicle that meets your needs
• Go easy on the brakes and gas pedal, avoid hard accelerations, reduce time spent idling
• Use overdrive and cruise control on your car
• Unload unnecessary items in your trunk to reduce weight

Give your car a break

• Use public transportation, carpool or walk or bike whenever possible to avoid using your car.
• Combine your activities and errands into one trip
• Consider working from home

Reduce, reuse, and recycle

• Recycle newspapers, beverage containers, paper and other goods
• Use products in containers that can be recycled
• Use items that can be repaired or reused
• Buy products made from recycled materials

Shift dietary choices

• Increase plant-based dietary intake
• Buy local

Compost

• Reduce the large amount of food waste in landfills by composting food items allowing them to break down into fertilizer

Although Environmental Health is not viewed as a top priority for many people, it is very important for overall health and wellness and for future generations.  If our youth develop habits that are protective of the environment early on, it will make it much easier for them to carry out those behaviors throughout their lifetime.  As adult role models, our contribution to saving the environment through healthy behaviors is critical as well.