American Psychological Association (APA) Citation
Printed book, one author
Shows author, date, title, place of publication, and publisher
Neath, I. (1998). Human memory: An introduction to research, data, and theory. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Printed book, one author, edition other than first
Shows author, date, title, edition number, place of publication, and publisher
Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Chapter or article in a book
Some books are compilations of chapters or articles written by various authors; shows chapter author(s), date of book, chapter title, book’s editor(s), book’s title, page numbers of chapter, and publication place and publisher
Markus, G. (2015). The computational brain. In G. Marcus & J. Freeman (Eds.) The future of the brain: Essays by the world’s leading neuroscientists (pp. 205-215). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Article paginated by volume and accessed through an online database
Shows author(s), date, title, journal, volume number, pages, and doi (paginated by volume means each new issue starts with a page number where the previous issue left off; most academic journals follow this structure)
Jenaro, C., Flores, N., Gómez-Vela, M., González-Gil, F., & Caballo, C. (2007). Problematic internet and cell-phone use: Psychological, behavioral, and health correlates. Addiction Research & Theory, 15, 309-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16066350701350247
Article in a print periodical paginated by issue
Shows author(s), date, title, journal, volume number, issue number, pages, and doi (paginated by issue means each new issue starts at page 1; although from a print copy, show doi if available)
Bell, R. G., Mathur, K., Narain, U., & Simpson, D. (2004). Clearing the air: How Delhi broke the logjam on air quality reforms. Environment, 46(3), 22-39.
Article accessed through an online database, but no doi (digital object identifier) available
Shows author(s), date, title, journal, volume number, pages, and the home URL of the journal (which may require an online search to find)
Jenaro, C., Flores, N., Gómez-Vela, M., González-Gil, F., & Caballo, C. (2007). Problematic internet and cell-phone use: Psychological, behavioral, and health correlates. Addiction Research & Theory, 15, 309-320. Retrieved from http://informahealthcare.com/journal/art
Article in a periodical, by two authors
Although only two authors, there is a comma and ampersand between their names; notice the alternative method of showing the doi
Ezzy, D., & Berger, H. (2009). Witchcraft: Changing patterns of participation in the early twenty-first century. The Pomegranate, 11, 165-180. doi:10.1558/pome.v11i2.165
Article in a periodical, by eight or more authors
Shows the first six authors, an ellipsis, the last author, and the usual publication information
Ozarda, Y., Ichihara, K., Aslan, D., Aybek, H., Ari, Z., Taneli, F.,… & Evliyaoglu, O. (2014). A multicenter nationwide reference intervals study for common biochemical analytes in Turkey using Abbott analyzers. Clinical Chemistry & Laboratory Medicine, 52, 1823-1833. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1515/cclm-2014-0228
Article from an online periodical
An online periodical is published online, but not in print; shows URL of the periodical’s home page
Worl, C. (2014). Will the real paleo diet please stand up? Amylase variation between human and non-human primates. Scholars’ Day Review, 2, 55-59. Retrieved from http://web.monroecc.edu/manila/webfiles/scholarsday/SDR.html
Magazine article
Shows author, issue date, title, magazine, volume, issue, and pages
Alexander, C. (2015, February). The invisible war on the brain. National Geographic, 224(2), 30-53.
Online magazine article
Shows author(s), issue date, title, magazine, volume (if available), issue (if available), and URL
Roach, J. (2004, August). Friday the 13th phobia rooted in ancient history. National Geographic. Retrieved from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/
Article or page from a website
Shows author(s), date, page title, description of source, and URL
Ofsowitz, M. S. (2012). Making the most of APA: Citing Internet sources without getting into trouble [Website]. Retrieved from http://web.monroecc.edu/mofsowitz/e-cite
Article or page from a website, with no date
Use the abbreviation n.d. (for no date) in place of the date
Kelly, M. (n.d.). Integrating the Internet: Concerns and issues [Website]. Retrieved from http://712educators.about.com/cs/technology/a/integratetech_2.htm
Article or page from a website with corporate owner but no author
Shows website owner, date, page title, description of source, and URL
W3schools.com (2015). CSS tutorial [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.w3schools.com/css/
Wikipedia page
Shows page title, date, Wikipedia, date of retrieval, and URL
Artificial intelligence. (n.d.) In Wikipedia. Retrieved June 4, 2015 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence
Motion picture (movie)
Shows producer (labeled), director (labeled), date, movie title, description of source, country, and studio
Abbott, S. (Producer), & Herman, M. (Director). (1996). Brassed off [Motion picture]. United Kingdom: Prominent Features.
Newspaper article, no author
Shows title, date (specific), and URL (to cite in text, shorten title to first two or three words)
‘Beautiful Mind’ mathematician John Nash killed in crash. (2015, May 26). BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-32865248
Personal communication (e-mail) [Presented in text, but not included in bibliography.]
This is shown in the in-text citation but not in the references list
- Kennedy, personal communication, June 25, 2009.
Personal communication [Presented in text, but not included in bibliography.]
This is shown in the in-text citation but not in the references list (also use this format for lecture notes from class)
- Stanforth, personal communication, July 17, 2010.
For more examples and details, see https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Questions psychologists ask
Most of the questions in academic psychology focus on some piece of the large puzzle of explaining how people in normal circumstances react, from observable behavior to the mind and brain, how those reactions come about, and why it all happens. Psychologists also ask questions about people with abnormal reactions to normal circumstances, and about normal people to abnormal circumstances. Because the large puzzle of explaining human behavior and mental process is infinitely complex, the questions psychologists ask are bounded by a reasonable expectation that extensive study can approach relatively durable answers by capturing details, one small verifiable piece at a time. For example, a student who comes to psychology with an interest in good and evil might begin by focusing on moral thought, then realize how complex that topic is and narrow the question to the influence of emotion in moral thought, then realize how complex that topic is and narrow the question to the influence only of fear in moral thought, then realize how complex that topic is and narrow the question to the influence of fear of uncertainty in moral thought, and then find some detail related to that, such as the relationship between “tolerance for ambiguity” (a component of fear of uncertainty) and “belief in a just world” (a specific moral judgment about justice in life). And so the student asks this very detailed question (how do those two concepts relate?) because there is a reasonable expectation that extensive study can approach a relatively durable answer. Meanwhile, somebody else might be asking about a slightly different piece of the puzzle of moral thought, and eventually we possess enough collected knowledge to address the larger questions by putting the pieces together.
Writing in psychology
Reviews of specific topics, lab reports, and anecdotal reports of personal experiences make up the bulk of student writing in psychology.
Reviews, known more formally as literature reviews, combine information from as many previously published papers and books as the author thinks necessary to make a coherent case about some topic, perhaps just summarizing what is known, or maybe arguing in favor of one interpretation over another about something in psychology. Most traditional college research papers in psychology are literature reviews. These and lab reports are expected to follow APA style for overall formatting, citation methods, and listing full bibliographic references.
Lab reports are professionally-structured science papers describing a research project that collects some data (evidence) to see if a specific hypothesis (prediction) is true or not. Essentially, you are using evidence to support the implied claim that your hypothesis is worth considering. The lab report is the place to describe an experiment or a correlational study, following a standard organization of first introducing the topic and explaining its background, then describing in detail the methods of the current investigation, then presenting the results of that investigation, and finally commenting on the meaning of the results.
Anecdotal reports include assignments ranging from a personal journal describing one’s ongoing experiences to formal descriptions of one’s reactions, impressions, or experiences relating to a specific situation. Many faculty assign anecdotal papers when experiential learning is a core component of the course. Although professors might not care about following APA style for papers like these, care should still be taken to write clearly and precisely.
Mike Ofsowitz, Psychology Faculty
