{"id":244,"date":"2014-07-25T20:09:54","date_gmt":"2014-07-25T20:09:54","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/writershandbook\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=244"},"modified":"2017-01-04T22:43:50","modified_gmt":"2017-01-04T22:43:50","slug":"4-2-recognizing-the-rhetorical-situation","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/chapter\/4-2-recognizing-the-rhetorical-situation\/","title":{"raw":"4.2 Recognizing the Rhetorical Situation","rendered":"4.2 Recognizing the Rhetorical Situation"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\"><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">4.2<\/span> Recognizing the Rhetorical Situation<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_n01\" class=\"im_learning_objectives im_editable im_block\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_l01\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Outline and illustrate the elements of the rhetorical triangle.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explore the uses and abuses of rhetorical appeals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Show how to develop the habit of thinking rhetorically.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe term <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">argument<\/span><\/span>, like <em class=\"im_emphasis\">rhetoric<\/em> and <em class=\"im_emphasis\">critical<\/em>, is another term that can carry negative connotations (e.g., \u201cWe argued all day,\u201d \u201cHe picked an argument,\u201d or \u201cYou don\u2019t have to be so argumentative\u201d), but like these other terms, it\u2019s really just a neutral term. It\u2019s the effort to use <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">rhetorical appeals<\/span><\/span> to influence an audience and achieve a certain set of purposes and outcomes.\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">The Rhetorical Triangle<\/h2>\r\nThe principles Aristotle laid out in his <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Rhetoric<\/em> nearly 2,500 years ago still form the foundation of much of our contemporary practice of argument. The rhetorical situation Aristotle argued was present in any piece of communication is often illustrated with a triangle to suggest the interdependent relationships among its three elements: the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong> (the speaker or writer), the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong> (the intended listeners or readers), and the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong> (the text being conveyed).\r\n<div class=\"im_informalfigure im_large im_block\"><a href=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/writershandbook\/section_08\/b4eb88f510722eb0e5006dccbb4a87e7.jpg\" target=\"_blank\"><img src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3922\/2014\/07\/sm_b4eb88f510722eb0e5006dccbb4a87e71.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/a><\/div>\r\nIf each corner of the triangle is represented by one of the three elements of the rhetorical situation, then each side of the triangle depicts a particular relationship between two elements:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s01_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Tone.<\/strong> The connection established between the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong> and the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Attitude.<\/strong> The orientation of the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong> toward the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong> it wants to convey.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Reception.<\/strong> The manner in which the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong> receives the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong> conveyed.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Rhetorical Appeals<\/h2>\r\nIn this section, we\u2019ll focus on how the rhetorical triangle can be used in service of argumentation, especially through the balanced use of ethical, logical, and emotional appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos, respectively. In the preceding figure, you\u2019ll note that each appeal has been placed next to the corner of the triangle with which it is most closely associated:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Ethos.<\/strong> Appeals to the credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the speaker or writer (most closely associated with the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Pathos.<\/strong> Appeals to the emotions and cultural beliefs of the listeners or readers (most closely associated with the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Logos.<\/strong> Appeals to reason, logic, and facts in the argument (most closely associated with the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nEach of these appeals relies on a certain type of <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">evidence<\/span><\/span>: ethical, emotional, or logical. Based on your audience and purpose, you have to decide what combination of techniques will work best as you present your case.\r\n\r\nWhen using a <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">logical appeal<\/span><\/span>, make sure to use sound inductive and deductive reasoning to speak to the reader\u2019s common sense. Specifically avoid using emotional comments or pictures if you think your audience will see their use as manipulative or inflammatory. For example, in an essay proposing that participating in high school athletics helps students develop into more successful students, you could show graphs comparing the grades of athletes and nonathletes, as well as high school graduation rates and post\u2013high school education enrollment. These statistics would support your points in a logical way and would probably work well with a school board that is considering cutting a sports program.\r\n\r\nThe goal of an <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">emotional appeal<\/span><\/span> is to garner sympathy, develop anger, instill pride, inspire happiness, or trigger other emotions. When you choose this method, your goal is for your audience to react emotionally regardless of what they might think logically. In some situations, invoking an emotional appeal is a reasonable choice. For example, if you were trying to convince your audience that a certain drug is dangerous to take, you might choose to show a harrowing image of a person who has had a bad reaction to the drug. In this case, the image draws an emotional appeal and helps convince the audience that the drug is dangerous. Unfortunately, emotional appeals are also often used unethically to sway opinions without solid reasoning.\r\n\r\nAn <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">ethical appeal<\/span><\/span> relies on the credibility of the author. For example, a college professor who places a college logo on a website gains some immediate credibility from being associated with the college. An advertisement for tennis shoes using a well-known athlete gains some credibility. You might create an ethical appeal in an essay on solving a campus problem by noting that you are serving in student government. Ethical appeals can add an important component to your argument, but keep in mind that ethical appeals are only as strong as the credibility of the association being made.\r\n\r\nWhether your argument relies primarily on logos, pathos, ethos, or a combination of these appeals, plan to make your case with your entire arsenal of facts, statistics, examples, anecdotes, illustrations, figurative language, quotations, expert opinions, discountable opposing views, and common ground with the audience. Carefully choosing these supporting details will control the tone of your paper as well as the success of your argument.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Logical, Emotional, and Ethical Fallacies<\/h2>\r\nRhetorical appeals have power. They can be used to motivate or to manipulate. When they are used irresponsibly, they lead to <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">fallacies<\/span><\/span>. Fallacies are, at best, unintentional reasoning errors, and at worst, they are deliberate attempts to deceive. Fallacies are commonly used in advertising and politics, but they are not acceptable in academic arguments. The following are some examples of three kinds of fallacies that abuse the power of logical, emotional, or ethical appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos).\r\n<div class=\"im_informaltable im_block\">\r\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Logical Fallacies<\/th>\r\n<th>Examples<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Begging the question<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">circular reasoning<\/strong>): The point is simply restated in different words as proof to support the point.<\/td>\r\n<td>Tall people are more successful because they accomplish more.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Either\/or fallacy:<\/strong> A situation is presented as an \u201ceither\/or\u201d choice when in reality, there are more than just two options.<\/td>\r\n<td>Either I start to college this fall or I work in a factory for the rest of my life.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">False analogy:<\/strong> A comparison is made between two things that are not enough alike to support the comparison.<\/td>\r\n<td>This summer camp job is like a rat cage. They feed us and let us out on a schedule.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Hasty generalization:<\/strong> A conclusion is reached with insufficient evidence.<\/td>\r\n<td>I wouldn\u2019t go to that college if I were you because it is extremely unorganized. I had to apply twice because they lost my first application.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><em class=\"im_emphasis im_bolditalic\">non sequitur<\/em>: Two unrelated ideas are erroneously shown to have a cause-and-effect relationship.<\/td>\r\n<td>If you like dogs, you would like a pet lion.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><em class=\"im_emphasis im_bolditalic\">post hoc ergo propter hoc<\/em> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">false cause and effect<\/strong>): The writer argues that A caused B because B happened after A.<\/td>\r\n<td>George W. Bush was elected after Bill Clinton, so it is clear that dissatisfaction with Clinton lead to Bush\u2019s election.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Red herring:<\/strong> The writer inserts an irrelevant detail into an argument to divert the reader\u2019s attention from the main issue.<\/td>\r\n<td>My room might be a mess, but I got an A in math.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Self-contradiction:<\/strong> One part of the writer\u2019s argument directly contradicts the overall argument.<\/td>\r\n<td>Man has evolved to the point that we clearly understand that there is no such thing as evolution.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Straw man:<\/strong> The writer rebuts a competing claim by offering an exaggerated or oversimplified version of it.<\/td>\r\n<td>Claim\u2014You should take a long walk every day. Rebuttal\u2014You want me to sell my car, or what?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"im_informaltable im_block\">\r\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Emotional Fallacies<\/th>\r\n<th>Examples<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Apple polishing:<\/strong> Flattery of the audience is disguised as a reason for accepting a claim.<\/td>\r\n<td>You should wear a fedora. You have the perfect bone structure for it.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Flattery:<\/strong> The writer suggests that readers with certain positive traits would naturally agree with the writer\u2019s point.<\/td>\r\n<td>You are a calm and collected person, so you can probably understand what I am saying.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Group think<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">group appeal<\/strong>): The reader is encouraged to decide about an issue based on identification with a popular, high-status group.<\/td>\r\n<td>The varsity football players all bought some of our fundraising candy. Do you want to buy some?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Riding the bandwagon:<\/strong> The writer suggests that since \u201ceveryone\u201d is doing something, the reader should do it too.<\/td>\r\n<td>The hot thing today is to wear black socks with tennis shoes. You\u2019ll look really out of it if you wear those white socks.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Scare tactics<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">veiled threats<\/strong>): The writer uses frightening ideas to scare readers into agreeing or believing something.<\/td>\r\n<td>If the garbage collection rates are not increased, your garbage will likely start piling up.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Stereotyping:<\/strong> The writer uses a sweeping, general statement about a group of people in order to prove a point.<\/td>\r\n<td>\n\nWomen won\u2019t like this movie because it has too much action and violence.\r\n\r\nOR\r\n\r\nMen won\u2019t like this movie because it\u2019s about feelings and relationships.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"im_informaltable im_block\">\r\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Ethical Fallacies<\/th>\r\n<th>Examples<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Argument from outrage:<\/strong> Extreme outrage that springs from an overbearing reliance on the writer\u2019s own subjective perspective is used to shock readers into agreeing instead of thinking for themselves.<\/td>\r\n<td>I was absolutely beside myself to think that anyone could be stupid enough to believe that the Ellis Corporation would live up to its commitments. The totally unethical management there failed to require the metal grade they agreed to. This horrendous mess we now have is completely their fault, and they must be held accountable.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">False authority<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">hero worship<\/strong> or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">appeal to authority<\/strong> or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">appeal to celebrity<\/strong>): A celebrity is quoted or hired to support a product or idea in efforts to sway others\u2019 opinions.<\/td>\r\n<td>LeBron James wears Nikes, and you should too.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Guilt by association:<\/strong> An adversary\u2019s credibility is attacked because the person has friends or relatives who possibly lack in credibility.<\/td>\r\n<td>We do not want people like her teaching our kids. Her father is in prison for murder.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Personal attack<\/strong> (or <em class=\"im_emphasis im_bolditalic\">ad hominem<\/em>): An adversary\u2019s personal attributes are used to discredit his or her argument.<\/td>\r\n<td>I don\u2019t care if the government hired her as an expert. If she doesn\u2019t know enough not to wear jeans to court, I don\u2019t trust her judgment about anything.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Poisoning the well:<\/strong> Negative information is shared about an adversary so others will later discredit his or her opinions.<\/td>\r\n<td>I heard that he was charged with aggravated assault last year, and his rich parents got him off.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Scapegoating:<\/strong> A certain group or person is unfairly blamed for all sorts of problems.<\/td>\r\n<td>Jake is such a terrible student government president; it is no wonder that it is raining today and our spring dance will be ruined.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDo your best to avoid using these examples of fallacious reasoning, and be alert to their use by others so that you aren\u2019t \u201ctricked\u201d into a line of unsound reasoning. Getting into the habit of reading academic, commercial, and political rhetoric carefully will enable you to see through manipulative, fallacious uses of verbal, written, and visual language. Being on guard for these fallacies will make you a more proficient college student, a smarter consumer, and a more careful voter, citizen, and member of your community.\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\r\n \t<li>The principles of the rhetorical situation outlined in Aristotle\u2019s <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Rhetoric<\/em> almost 2,500 years ago still influence the way we look at rhetoric today, especially the interdependent relationships between voice (the speaker or writer), message (the text being conveyed), and audience (the intended listeners or readers).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The specific relationships in the rhetorical triangle can be called tone (voice\u2013audience), attitude (voice\u2013message), and reception (audience\u2013message).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Rhetorical appeals can be used responsibly as a means of building a persuasive argument, but they can also be abused in fallacies that manipulate and deceive unsuspecting audiences.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_n02\" class=\"im_exercises im_block\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Exercises<\/h3>\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Apply what you\u2019ve learned about the uses and abuses of rhetorical appeals (logos, pathos, and ethos) to a text from the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 \"Gallery of Web-Based Texts\"<\/strong> in Chapter 2 \"Becoming a Critical Reader.\" For good examples from advertising, politics, history, and government, try the Ad Council, the Avalon Project, From Revolution to Reconstruction, The Living Room Candidate, or the C-SPAN Video Library. For example, The Living Room Candidate site allows you to survey television ads from any presidential campaign since 1952. You could study five ads for each of the major candidates and subject the ads to a thorough review of their use of rhetorical techniques. Cite how and where each ad uses each of the three rhetorical appeals, and determine whether you think each ad uses the appeals manipulatively or legitimately. In this case, subject your political biases and preconceptions to a review as well. Is your view of one candidate\u2019s advertising more charitable than the other for any subjective reason?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Find five recent print, television, or web-based advertisements and subject them to a thorough review of their use of rhetorical techniques. Determine whether you think each advertisement uses rhetorical appeals responsibly and effectively or misuses the appeals through fallacies. Identify the appeals employed in either case.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In the following passage from Thomas Paine\u2019s famous 1776 pamphlet, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Common Sense<\/em>, discuss Paine\u2019s use of rhetorical appeals. Which of the three appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos) predominates, and why? For the context of this passage, go to From Revolution to Reconstruction in the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 \"Gallery of Web-Based Texts\"<\/strong> and search for Paine, or click on <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/paine\/CM\/sense04.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/paine\/CM\/sense04.htm<\/a> to go to the passage directly:<em>Europe is too thickly planted with kingdoms to be long at peace, and whenever a war breaks out between England and any foreign power, the trade of America goes to ruin, because of her connection with Britain. The next war may not turn out like the Past, and should it not, the advocates for reconciliation now will be wishing for separation then, because, neutrality in that case, would be a safer convoy than a man of war. Every thing that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, \u2019TIS TIME TO PART. Even the distance at which the Almighty hath placed England and America, is a strong and natural proof, that the authority of the one, over the other, was never the design of Heaven.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>American colonists faced a dialectic between continuing to be ruled by Great Britain or declaring independence. Arguments in favor of independence (such as Paine\u2019s) are quite familiar to students of American history; the other side of the dialectic, which did not prevail, will likely be less so. In the following passage, Charles Inglis, in his 1776 pamphlet, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The True Interest of America Impartially Stated<\/em>, makes a case for ending the rebellion and reconciling with Great Britain. At one point in the passage, Inglis quotes Paine directly (calling him \u201cthis author\u201d) as part of his rebuttal. As in the preceding exercise, read the passage and discuss its use of rhetorical appeals. Again, which of the three appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos) predominates, and why? For a link to the entire Inglis document, search for Inglis in From Revolution to Reconstruction in the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 \"Gallery of Web-Based Texts,\"<\/strong> or click on <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/libertydebate\/inglis.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/libertydebate\/inglis.htm<\/a> to go to the link directly:\r\n\r\n<em>By a reconciliation with Britain, a period would be put to the present calamitous war, by which so many lives have been lost, and so many more must be lost, if it continues. This alone is an advantage devoutly to be wished for. This author says, \u201cThe blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, Tis time to part.\u201d I think they cry just the reverse. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries\u2014It is time to be reconciled; it is time to lay aside those animosities which have pushed on Britons to shed the blood of Britons; it is high time that those who are connected by the endearing ties of religion, kindred and country, should resume their former friendship, and be united in the bond of mutual affection, as their interests are inseparably united.<\/em>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\"><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">4.2<\/span> Recognizing the Rhetorical Situation<\/h2>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_n01\" class=\"im_learning_objectives im_editable im_block\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_l01\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Outline and illustrate the elements of the rhetorical triangle.<\/li>\n<li>Explore the uses and abuses of rhetorical appeals.<\/li>\n<li>Show how to develop the habit of thinking rhetorically.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p>The term <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">argument<\/span><\/span>, like <em class=\"im_emphasis\">rhetoric<\/em> and <em class=\"im_emphasis\">critical<\/em>, is another term that can carry negative connotations (e.g., \u201cWe argued all day,\u201d \u201cHe picked an argument,\u201d or \u201cYou don\u2019t have to be so argumentative\u201d), but like these other terms, it\u2019s really just a neutral term. It\u2019s the effort to use <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">rhetorical appeals<\/span><\/span> to influence an audience and achieve a certain set of purposes and outcomes.<\/p>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">The Rhetorical Triangle<\/h2>\n<p>The principles Aristotle laid out in his <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Rhetoric<\/em> nearly 2,500 years ago still form the foundation of much of our contemporary practice of argument. The rhetorical situation Aristotle argued was present in any piece of communication is often illustrated with a triangle to suggest the interdependent relationships among its three elements: the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong> (the speaker or writer), the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong> (the intended listeners or readers), and the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong> (the text being conveyed).<\/p>\n<div class=\"im_informalfigure im_large im_block\"><a href=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/writershandbook\/section_08\/b4eb88f510722eb0e5006dccbb4a87e7.jpg\" target=\"_blank\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3922\/2014\/07\/sm_b4eb88f510722eb0e5006dccbb4a87e71.jpg\" alt=\"\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p>If each corner of the triangle is represented by one of the three elements of the rhetorical situation, then each side of the triangle depicts a particular relationship between two elements:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s01_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Tone.<\/strong> The connection established between the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong> and the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Attitude.<\/strong> The orientation of the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong> toward the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong> it wants to convey.<\/li>\n<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Reception.<\/strong> The manner in which the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong> receives the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong> conveyed.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Rhetorical Appeals<\/h2>\n<p>In this section, we\u2019ll focus on how the rhetorical triangle can be used in service of argumentation, especially through the balanced use of ethical, logical, and emotional appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos, respectively. In the preceding figure, you\u2019ll note that each appeal has been placed next to the corner of the triangle with which it is most closely associated:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Ethos.<\/strong> Appeals to the credibility, reputation, and trustworthiness of the speaker or writer (most closely associated with the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">voice<\/strong>).<\/li>\n<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Pathos.<\/strong> Appeals to the emotions and cultural beliefs of the listeners or readers (most closely associated with the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">audience<\/strong>).<\/li>\n<li><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Logos.<\/strong> Appeals to reason, logic, and facts in the argument (most closely associated with the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">message<\/strong>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Each of these appeals relies on a certain type of <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">evidence<\/span><\/span>: ethical, emotional, or logical. Based on your audience and purpose, you have to decide what combination of techniques will work best as you present your case.<\/p>\n<p>When using a <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">logical appeal<\/span><\/span>, make sure to use sound inductive and deductive reasoning to speak to the reader\u2019s common sense. Specifically avoid using emotional comments or pictures if you think your audience will see their use as manipulative or inflammatory. For example, in an essay proposing that participating in high school athletics helps students develop into more successful students, you could show graphs comparing the grades of athletes and nonathletes, as well as high school graduation rates and post\u2013high school education enrollment. These statistics would support your points in a logical way and would probably work well with a school board that is considering cutting a sports program.<\/p>\n<p>The goal of an <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">emotional appeal<\/span><\/span> is to garner sympathy, develop anger, instill pride, inspire happiness, or trigger other emotions. When you choose this method, your goal is for your audience to react emotionally regardless of what they might think logically. In some situations, invoking an emotional appeal is a reasonable choice. For example, if you were trying to convince your audience that a certain drug is dangerous to take, you might choose to show a harrowing image of a person who has had a bad reaction to the drug. In this case, the image draws an emotional appeal and helps convince the audience that the drug is dangerous. Unfortunately, emotional appeals are also often used unethically to sway opinions without solid reasoning.<\/p>\n<p>An <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">ethical appeal<\/span><\/span> relies on the credibility of the author. For example, a college professor who places a college logo on a website gains some immediate credibility from being associated with the college. An advertisement for tennis shoes using a well-known athlete gains some credibility. You might create an ethical appeal in an essay on solving a campus problem by noting that you are serving in student government. Ethical appeals can add an important component to your argument, but keep in mind that ethical appeals are only as strong as the credibility of the association being made.<\/p>\n<p>Whether your argument relies primarily on logos, pathos, ethos, or a combination of these appeals, plan to make your case with your entire arsenal of facts, statistics, examples, anecdotes, illustrations, figurative language, quotations, expert opinions, discountable opposing views, and common ground with the audience. Carefully choosing these supporting details will control the tone of your paper as well as the success of your argument.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Logical, Emotional, and Ethical Fallacies<\/h2>\n<p>Rhetorical appeals have power. They can be used to motivate or to manipulate. When they are used irresponsibly, they lead to <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">fallacies<\/span><\/span>. Fallacies are, at best, unintentional reasoning errors, and at worst, they are deliberate attempts to deceive. Fallacies are commonly used in advertising and politics, but they are not acceptable in academic arguments. The following are some examples of three kinds of fallacies that abuse the power of logical, emotional, or ethical appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos).<\/p>\n<div class=\"im_informaltable im_block\">\n<table cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Logical Fallacies<\/th>\n<th>Examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Begging the question<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">circular reasoning<\/strong>): The point is simply restated in different words as proof to support the point.<\/td>\n<td>Tall people are more successful because they accomplish more.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Either\/or fallacy:<\/strong> A situation is presented as an \u201ceither\/or\u201d choice when in reality, there are more than just two options.<\/td>\n<td>Either I start to college this fall or I work in a factory for the rest of my life.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">False analogy:<\/strong> A comparison is made between two things that are not enough alike to support the comparison.<\/td>\n<td>This summer camp job is like a rat cage. They feed us and let us out on a schedule.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Hasty generalization:<\/strong> A conclusion is reached with insufficient evidence.<\/td>\n<td>I wouldn\u2019t go to that college if I were you because it is extremely unorganized. I had to apply twice because they lost my first application.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><em class=\"im_emphasis im_bolditalic\">non sequitur<\/em>: Two unrelated ideas are erroneously shown to have a cause-and-effect relationship.<\/td>\n<td>If you like dogs, you would like a pet lion.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><em class=\"im_emphasis im_bolditalic\">post hoc ergo propter hoc<\/em> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">false cause and effect<\/strong>): The writer argues that A caused B because B happened after A.<\/td>\n<td>George W. Bush was elected after Bill Clinton, so it is clear that dissatisfaction with Clinton lead to Bush\u2019s election.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Red herring:<\/strong> The writer inserts an irrelevant detail into an argument to divert the reader\u2019s attention from the main issue.<\/td>\n<td>My room might be a mess, but I got an A in math.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Self-contradiction:<\/strong> One part of the writer\u2019s argument directly contradicts the overall argument.<\/td>\n<td>Man has evolved to the point that we clearly understand that there is no such thing as evolution.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Straw man:<\/strong> The writer rebuts a competing claim by offering an exaggerated or oversimplified version of it.<\/td>\n<td>Claim\u2014You should take a long walk every day. Rebuttal\u2014You want me to sell my car, or what?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"im_informaltable im_block\">\n<table cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Emotional Fallacies<\/th>\n<th>Examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Apple polishing:<\/strong> Flattery of the audience is disguised as a reason for accepting a claim.<\/td>\n<td>You should wear a fedora. You have the perfect bone structure for it.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Flattery:<\/strong> The writer suggests that readers with certain positive traits would naturally agree with the writer\u2019s point.<\/td>\n<td>You are a calm and collected person, so you can probably understand what I am saying.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Group think<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">group appeal<\/strong>): The reader is encouraged to decide about an issue based on identification with a popular, high-status group.<\/td>\n<td>The varsity football players all bought some of our fundraising candy. Do you want to buy some?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Riding the bandwagon:<\/strong> The writer suggests that since \u201ceveryone\u201d is doing something, the reader should do it too.<\/td>\n<td>The hot thing today is to wear black socks with tennis shoes. You\u2019ll look really out of it if you wear those white socks.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Scare tactics<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">veiled threats<\/strong>): The writer uses frightening ideas to scare readers into agreeing or believing something.<\/td>\n<td>If the garbage collection rates are not increased, your garbage will likely start piling up.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Stereotyping:<\/strong> The writer uses a sweeping, general statement about a group of people in order to prove a point.<\/td>\n<td>\n<p>Women won\u2019t like this movie because it has too much action and violence.<\/p>\n<p>OR<\/p>\n<p>Men won\u2019t like this movie because it\u2019s about feelings and relationships.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"im_informaltable im_block\">\n<table cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Ethical Fallacies<\/th>\n<th>Examples<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Argument from outrage:<\/strong> Extreme outrage that springs from an overbearing reliance on the writer\u2019s own subjective perspective is used to shock readers into agreeing instead of thinking for themselves.<\/td>\n<td>I was absolutely beside myself to think that anyone could be stupid enough to believe that the Ellis Corporation would live up to its commitments. The totally unethical management there failed to require the metal grade they agreed to. This horrendous mess we now have is completely their fault, and they must be held accountable.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">False authority<\/strong> (or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">hero worship<\/strong> or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">appeal to authority<\/strong> or <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">appeal to celebrity<\/strong>): A celebrity is quoted or hired to support a product or idea in efforts to sway others\u2019 opinions.<\/td>\n<td>LeBron James wears Nikes, and you should too.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Guilt by association:<\/strong> An adversary\u2019s credibility is attacked because the person has friends or relatives who possibly lack in credibility.<\/td>\n<td>We do not want people like her teaching our kids. Her father is in prison for murder.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Personal attack<\/strong> (or <em class=\"im_emphasis im_bolditalic\">ad hominem<\/em>): An adversary\u2019s personal attributes are used to discredit his or her argument.<\/td>\n<td>I don\u2019t care if the government hired her as an expert. If she doesn\u2019t know enough not to wear jeans to court, I don\u2019t trust her judgment about anything.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Poisoning the well:<\/strong> Negative information is shared about an adversary so others will later discredit his or her opinions.<\/td>\n<td>I heard that he was charged with aggravated assault last year, and his rich parents got him off.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Scapegoating:<\/strong> A certain group or person is unfairly blamed for all sorts of problems.<\/td>\n<td>Jake is such a terrible student government president; it is no wonder that it is raining today and our spring dance will be ruined.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p>Do your best to avoid using these examples of fallacious reasoning, and be alert to their use by others so that you aren\u2019t \u201ctricked\u201d into a line of unsound reasoning. Getting into the habit of reading academic, commercial, and political rhetoric carefully will enable you to see through manipulative, fallacious uses of verbal, written, and visual language. Being on guard for these fallacies will make you a more proficient college student, a smarter consumer, and a more careful voter, citizen, and member of your community.<\/p>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\n<li>The principles of the rhetorical situation outlined in Aristotle\u2019s <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Rhetoric<\/em> almost 2,500 years ago still influence the way we look at rhetoric today, especially the interdependent relationships between voice (the speaker or writer), message (the text being conveyed), and audience (the intended listeners or readers).<\/li>\n<li>The specific relationships in the rhetorical triangle can be called tone (voice\u2013audience), attitude (voice\u2013message), and reception (audience\u2013message).<\/li>\n<li>Rhetorical appeals can be used responsibly as a means of building a persuasive argument, but they can also be abused in fallacies that manipulate and deceive unsuspecting audiences.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_n02\" class=\"im_exercises im_block\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Exercises<\/h3>\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s02_s03_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Apply what you\u2019ve learned about the uses and abuses of rhetorical appeals (logos, pathos, and ethos) to a text from the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 &#8220;Gallery of Web-Based Texts&#8221;<\/strong> in Chapter 2 &#8220;Becoming a Critical Reader.&#8221; For good examples from advertising, politics, history, and government, try the Ad Council, the Avalon Project, From Revolution to Reconstruction, The Living Room Candidate, or the C-SPAN Video Library. For example, The Living Room Candidate site allows you to survey television ads from any presidential campaign since 1952. You could study five ads for each of the major candidates and subject the ads to a thorough review of their use of rhetorical techniques. Cite how and where each ad uses each of the three rhetorical appeals, and determine whether you think each ad uses the appeals manipulatively or legitimately. In this case, subject your political biases and preconceptions to a review as well. Is your view of one candidate\u2019s advertising more charitable than the other for any subjective reason?<\/li>\n<li>Find five recent print, television, or web-based advertisements and subject them to a thorough review of their use of rhetorical techniques. Determine whether you think each advertisement uses rhetorical appeals responsibly and effectively or misuses the appeals through fallacies. Identify the appeals employed in either case.<\/li>\n<li>In the following passage from Thomas Paine\u2019s famous 1776 pamphlet, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Common Sense<\/em>, discuss Paine\u2019s use of rhetorical appeals. Which of the three appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos) predominates, and why? For the context of this passage, go to From Revolution to Reconstruction in the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 &#8220;Gallery of Web-Based Texts&#8221;<\/strong> and search for Paine, or click on <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/paine\/CM\/sense04.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/paine\/CM\/sense04.htm<\/a> to go to the passage directly:<em>Europe is too thickly planted with kingdoms to be long at peace, and whenever a war breaks out between England and any foreign power, the trade of America goes to ruin, because of her connection with Britain. The next war may not turn out like the Past, and should it not, the advocates for reconciliation now will be wishing for separation then, because, neutrality in that case, would be a safer convoy than a man of war. Every thing that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, \u2019TIS TIME TO PART. Even the distance at which the Almighty hath placed England and America, is a strong and natural proof, that the authority of the one, over the other, was never the design of Heaven.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>American colonists faced a dialectic between continuing to be ruled by Great Britain or declaring independence. Arguments in favor of independence (such as Paine\u2019s) are quite familiar to students of American history; the other side of the dialectic, which did not prevail, will likely be less so. In the following passage, Charles Inglis, in his 1776 pamphlet, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The True Interest of America Impartially Stated<\/em>, makes a case for ending the rebellion and reconciling with Great Britain. At one point in the passage, Inglis quotes Paine directly (calling him \u201cthis author\u201d) as part of his rebuttal. As in the preceding exercise, read the passage and discuss its use of rhetorical appeals. Again, which of the three appeals (logos, pathos, or ethos) predominates, and why? For a link to the entire Inglis document, search for Inglis in From Revolution to Reconstruction in the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 &#8220;Gallery of Web-Based Texts,&#8221;<\/strong> or click on <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/libertydebate\/inglis.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.let.rug.nl\/usa\/D\/1776-1800\/libertydebate\/inglis.htm<\/a> to go to the link directly:\n<p><em>By a reconciliation with Britain, a period would be put to the present calamitous war, by which so many lives have been lost, and so many more must be lost, if it continues. This alone is an advantage devoutly to be wished for. This author says, \u201cThe blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, Tis time to part.\u201d I think they cry just the reverse. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries\u2014It is time to be reconciled; it is time to lay aside those animosities which have pushed on Britons to shed the blood of Britons; it is high time that those who are connected by the endearing ties of religion, kindred and country, should resume their former friendship, and be united in the bond of mutual affection, as their interests are inseparably united.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-244\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Writers Handbook. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/writers-handbook\/\">http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/writers-handbook\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":5,"menu_order":15,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Writers Handbook\",\"author\":\"Anonymous\",\"organization\":\"Anonymous\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/writers-handbook\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-244","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":408,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/244","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/244\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":837,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/244\/revisions\/837"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/408"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/244\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=244"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=244"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=244"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=244"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}