{"id":245,"date":"2014-07-25T20:09:54","date_gmt":"2014-07-25T20:09:54","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/writershandbook\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=245"},"modified":"2017-01-04T22:46:32","modified_gmt":"2017-01-04T22:46:32","slug":"4-3-rhetoric-and-argumentation","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/chapter\/4-3-rhetoric-and-argumentation\/","title":{"raw":"4.3 Rhetoric and Argumentation","rendered":"4.3 Rhetoric and Argumentation"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\"><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">4.3<\/span> Rhetoric and Argumentation<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_n01\" class=\"im_learning_objectives im_editable im_block\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_l01\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Recognize the various methods, types, and aims of argumentation used in academic and professional texts.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understand how to adjust your approach to argumentation depending on your rhetorical situation and the findings of your research.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\nTrue argumentation is the most important kind of communication in the academic and professional world. Used effectively, it is how ideas are debated and shared in discourse communities. Argumentation holds both writers and readers to the highest standards of responsibility and ethics. It is usually not what you see on cable news shows or, sadly, even in presidential debates. This section will show how rhetoric is used in service of argumentation.\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Induction and Deduction<\/h2>\r\nTraditionally, arguments are classified as either <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">inductive<\/span><\/span> or <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">deductive<\/span><\/span>. Inductive arguments consider a number of results and form a generalization based on those results. In other words, say you sat outside a classroom building and tallied the number of students wearing jeans and the number wearing something other than jeans. If after one hour, you had tallied 360 students wearing jeans and 32 wearing other clothes, you could use inductive reasoning to make the generalization that most students at your college wear jeans to class. Here\u2019s another example. While waiting for your little sister to come out of the high school, you saw 14 girls wearing high heels. So you assume that high heels are standard wear for today\u2019s high school girls.\r\n\r\nDeductive arguments begin with a general principle, which is referred to as a major premise. Then a related premise is applied to the major premise and a conclusion is formed. The three statements together form a <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">syllogism<\/span><\/span>. Here are some examples:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s01_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li>Major premise: Leather purses last a long time.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Minor premise: I have a leather purse.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion: My purse will last a long time.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Major premise: Tara watches a lot of television.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Minor premise: Tara is a very good student.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion: A teenager can be a good student even if he or she watches a lot of television.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nAlthough these simple inductive and deductive arguments are fairly clean and easy to follow, they can be flawed because of their rigidity.\r\n\r\nLet\u2019s revisit the \u201ccollege students wear jeans\u201d argument. What if you happened to be counting jeans wearers on a day that has been declared Denim Appreciation Day? Or conversely, what if you had taken the sample on the hottest day of the year in the middle of the summer session? Although it might be true that most students in your sample <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">on that day<\/strong> wore jeans to class, the argument as it stands is not yet strong enough to support the statement.\r\n\r\nNow consider the purse argument. The argument is not strong since a variety of possible exceptions are obvious. First, not all leather purses last a long time since the leather could be strong, but the workmanship could be shoddy (challenge to major premise). Second, the quality of the leather in your particular purse could be such that it would not hold up to heavy use (challenge to minor premise). Third, a possible exception is that the argument does not take into account how long I have had my purse: even though it is made of leather, its lifespan could be about over. Since very few issues are completely straightforward, it is often easy to imagine exceptions to simplistic arguments. For this reason, somewhat complex argument forms have been developed to address more complicated issues that require some flexibility.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Types of Argumentation<\/h2>\r\nThree common types of argumentation are <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">classical<\/span><\/span>, <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Toulmin<\/span><\/span>, and <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Rogerian<\/span><\/span>. You can choose which type to use based on the nature of your argument, the opinions of your audience, and the relationship between your argument and your audience.\r\n\r\nThe typical format for a classical argument will likely be familiar to you:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li>Introduction\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l02\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Convince readers that the topic is worthy of their attention.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Provide background information that sets the stage for the argument.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Provide details that show you as a credible source.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>End with a thesis statement that takes a position on the issue or problem you have established to be arguable.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Presentation of position\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l03\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Give the reasons why the reader should share your opinion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Provide support for the reasons.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Show why the reasons matter to the audience.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Presentation and rebuttal of alternative positions\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l04\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Show that you are aware of opposing views.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Systematically present the advantages and disadvantages of the opposing views.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Show that you have been thorough and fair but clearly have made the correct choice with the stand you have taken.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l05\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Summarize your argument.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Make a direct request for audience support.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reiterate your credentials.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nToulmin argumentation (named for its creator, Stephen Toulmin) includes three components: a <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">claim<\/span><\/span>, stated grounds to support the claim, and unstated assumptions called warrants. Here\u2019s an example:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l06\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li>Claim: All homeowners can benefit from double-pane windows.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Grounds: Double-pane windows are much more energy efficient than single-pane windows. Also, double-pane windows block distracting outside noise.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Warrant: Double-pane windows keep houses cooler in summer and warmer in winter, and they qualify for the tax break for energy-efficient home improvements.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe purest version of Rogerian argumentation (named for its creator, Carl Rogers) actually aims for true compromise between two positions. It can be particularly appropriate when the dialectic you are addressing remains truly unresolved. However, the Rogerian method has been put into service as a motivational technique, as in this example:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l07\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li>Core argument: First-semester college students should be required to attend three writing sessions in the college writing center.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Common ground: Many first-semester college students struggle with college-level work and the overall transition from high school to college.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Link between common ground and core argument: We want our students to have every chance to succeed, and students who attend at least three writing sessions in the university writing lab are 90 percent more likely to succeed in college.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nRogerian argumentation can also be an effective standard debating technique when you are arguing for a specific point of view. Begin by stating the opposing view to capture the attention of audience members who hold that position and then show how it shares common ground with your side of the point. Your goal is to persuade your audience to come to accept your point by the time they read to the end of your argument. Applying this variation to the preceding example might mean leading off with your audience\u2019s greatest misgivings about attending the writing center, by opening with something like \u201cFirst-semester college students are so busy that they should not be asked to do anything they do not really need to do.\u201d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Analytical and Problem-Solving Argumentation<\/h2>\r\nArguments of any kind are likely to either take a position about an issue or present a solution to a problem. Don\u2019t be surprised, though, if you end up doing both. If your goal is to analyze a text or a body of data and justify your interpretation with evidence, you are writing an <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">analytical argument<\/span><\/span>. Examples include the following:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s03_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li>Evaluative reviews (of restaurants, films, political candidates, etc.)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Interpretations of texts (a short story, poem, painting, piece of music, etc.)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyses of the causes and effects of events (9\/11, the Civil War, unemployment, etc.)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Problem-solving argumentation<\/span><\/span> is not only the most complicated but also the most important type of all. It involves several thresholds of proof. First, you have to convince readers that a problem exists. Second, you have to give a convincing description of the problem. Third, because problems often have more than one solution, you have to convince readers that your solution is the most feasible and effective. Think about the different opinions people might hold about the severity, causes, and possible solutions to these sample problems:\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s03_l02\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n \t<li>Global warming<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nonrenewable energy consumption<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The federal budget deficit<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Homelessness<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Rates of personal saving<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nArgumentation often requires a combination of analytical and problem-solving approaches. Whether the assignment requires you to analyze, solve a problem, or both, your goal is to present your facts or solution confidently, clearly, and completely. Despite the common root word, when writing an argument, you need to guard against taking a too argumentative tone. You need to support your statements with evidence but do so without being unduly abrasive. Good argumentation allows us to disagree without being disagreeable.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Research and Revision in Argumentation<\/h2>\r\nYour college professors are not interested in having you do in-depth research for its own sake, just to prove that you know how to incorporate a certain number of sources and document them appropriately. It is assumed that extensive research is a core feature of a strong essay. In college-level writing, research is not meant merely to provide additional support for an already fixed idea you have about the topic, or to set up a \u201cstraw man\u201d for you to knock down with ease. Don\u2019t fall into the trap of trying to make your research fit your existing argument. Research conducted in good faith will almost certainly lead you to refine your ideas about your topic, leading to multiple revisions of your work. It might cause you even to change your topic entirely. (For more on research and revision in argumentation, see <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-7-researching\/\">Chapter 7 \"Researching\"<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-8-revising\/\">Chapter 8 \"Revising.\"<\/a>)\r\n\r\nRevision is part of the design of higher education. If you embrace the \u201cwriting to think\u201d and \u201cwriting to learn\u201d philosophy and adopt the \u201ccomposing habits of mind\u201d outlined in <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-1-writing-to-think-and-writing-to-learn\/\">Chapter 1 \"Writing to Think and Writing to Learn,\"<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-2-becoming-a-critical-reader\/\">Chapter 2 \"Becoming a Critical Reader,\"<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-3-thinking-through-the-disciplines\/\">Chapter 3 \"Thinking through the Disciplines,\"<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-4-joining-the-conversation\/\">Chapter 4 \"Joining the Conversation,\"<\/a> with each draft, you will likely rethink your positions, do additional research, and make other general changes. As you conduct additional research between drafts, you are likely to find new information that will lead you to revise your core argument. Let your research drive your work, and keep in mind that your argument will remain in flux until your final draft. In the end, every final draft you produce should feel like a small piece of a vast and never ending conversation.\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Argumentative reasoning relies on deduction (using multiple pieces of evidence to arrive at a single conclusion) and induction (arriving at a general conclusion from specific facts).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You must decide which type of argumentation (classical, Toulmin, or Rogerian) is most appropriate for the rhetorical situation (voice, audience, message, tone, attitude, and reception).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analytical argumentation looks at a body of evidence and takes a position about it, while problem-solving argumentation tries to present a solution to a problem. These two aims of argumentation lead to very different kinds of evidence and organizational approaches.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In argumentation, it\u2019s especially important for you to be willing to adjust your approach and even your position in the face of new evidence or new circumstances.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_n02\" class=\"im_exercises im_editable im_block\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Exercises<\/h3>\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Drawing from one of your college library databases or from the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 \"Gallery of Web-Based Texts\"<\/strong> in Chapter 2 \"Becoming a Critical Reader\" (perhaps a couple of articles linked to ALDaily or one of the debates in the Big Questions Essay Series), find two texts you consider to be serious efforts at academic or professional argumentation. Write up a report about the types of argumentation used in each of the two texts. Answer the following questions and give examples to support your answers:\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l03\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Does the text use primarily inductive or deductive argumentation?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does it use classical, Toulmin, or Rogerian argumentation?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is it primarily analytical or problem-solving argumentation?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With your writing group or in a large-class discussion, discuss the types of argumentation that would be most appropriate and effective for addressing the following issues:\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l04\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Capital punishment<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Abortion<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The legal drinking age<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Climate change<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Campus security<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Come up with a controversial subject and write about how you would treat it differently depending on whether you used each of the following:\r\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l05\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n \t<li>Inductive or deductive reasoning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Classical, Toulmin, or Rogerian argumentation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>An analytical or a problem-solving approach<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\"><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">4.3<\/span> Rhetoric and Argumentation<\/h2>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_n01\" class=\"im_learning_objectives im_editable im_block\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_l01\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Recognize the various methods, types, and aims of argumentation used in academic and professional texts.<\/li>\n<li>Understand how to adjust your approach to argumentation depending on your rhetorical situation and the findings of your research.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p>True argumentation is the most important kind of communication in the academic and professional world. Used effectively, it is how ideas are debated and shared in discourse communities. Argumentation holds both writers and readers to the highest standards of responsibility and ethics. It is usually not what you see on cable news shows or, sadly, even in presidential debates. This section will show how rhetoric is used in service of argumentation.<\/p>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Induction and Deduction<\/h2>\n<p>Traditionally, arguments are classified as either <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">inductive<\/span><\/span> or <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">deductive<\/span><\/span>. Inductive arguments consider a number of results and form a generalization based on those results. In other words, say you sat outside a classroom building and tallied the number of students wearing jeans and the number wearing something other than jeans. If after one hour, you had tallied 360 students wearing jeans and 32 wearing other clothes, you could use inductive reasoning to make the generalization that most students at your college wear jeans to class. Here\u2019s another example. While waiting for your little sister to come out of the high school, you saw 14 girls wearing high heels. So you assume that high heels are standard wear for today\u2019s high school girls.<\/p>\n<p>Deductive arguments begin with a general principle, which is referred to as a major premise. Then a related premise is applied to the major premise and a conclusion is formed. The three statements together form a <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">syllogism<\/span><\/span>. Here are some examples:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s01_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Major premise: Leather purses last a long time.<\/li>\n<li>Minor premise: I have a leather purse.<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion: My purse will last a long time.<\/li>\n<li>Major premise: Tara watches a lot of television.<\/li>\n<li>Minor premise: Tara is a very good student.<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion: A teenager can be a good student even if he or she watches a lot of television.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Although these simple inductive and deductive arguments are fairly clean and easy to follow, they can be flawed because of their rigidity.<\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s revisit the \u201ccollege students wear jeans\u201d argument. What if you happened to be counting jeans wearers on a day that has been declared Denim Appreciation Day? Or conversely, what if you had taken the sample on the hottest day of the year in the middle of the summer session? Although it might be true that most students in your sample <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">on that day<\/strong> wore jeans to class, the argument as it stands is not yet strong enough to support the statement.<\/p>\n<p>Now consider the purse argument. The argument is not strong since a variety of possible exceptions are obvious. First, not all leather purses last a long time since the leather could be strong, but the workmanship could be shoddy (challenge to major premise). Second, the quality of the leather in your particular purse could be such that it would not hold up to heavy use (challenge to minor premise). Third, a possible exception is that the argument does not take into account how long I have had my purse: even though it is made of leather, its lifespan could be about over. Since very few issues are completely straightforward, it is often easy to imagine exceptions to simplistic arguments. For this reason, somewhat complex argument forms have been developed to address more complicated issues that require some flexibility.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Types of Argumentation<\/h2>\n<p>Three common types of argumentation are <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">classical<\/span><\/span>, <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Toulmin<\/span><\/span>, and <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Rogerian<\/span><\/span>. You can choose which type to use based on the nature of your argument, the opinions of your audience, and the relationship between your argument and your audience.<\/p>\n<p>The typical format for a classical argument will likely be familiar to you:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Introduction\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l02\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\n<li>Convince readers that the topic is worthy of their attention.<\/li>\n<li>Provide background information that sets the stage for the argument.<\/li>\n<li>Provide details that show you as a credible source.<\/li>\n<li>End with a thesis statement that takes a position on the issue or problem you have established to be arguable.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Presentation of position\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l03\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\n<li>Give the reasons why the reader should share your opinion.<\/li>\n<li>Provide support for the reasons.<\/li>\n<li>Show why the reasons matter to the audience.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Presentation and rebuttal of alternative positions\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l04\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\n<li>Show that you are aware of opposing views.<\/li>\n<li>Systematically present the advantages and disadvantages of the opposing views.<\/li>\n<li>Show that you have been thorough and fair but clearly have made the correct choice with the stand you have taken.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l05\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\n<li>Summarize your argument.<\/li>\n<li>Make a direct request for audience support.<\/li>\n<li>Reiterate your credentials.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Toulmin argumentation (named for its creator, Stephen Toulmin) includes three components: a <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">claim<\/span><\/span>, stated grounds to support the claim, and unstated assumptions called warrants. Here\u2019s an example:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l06\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Claim: All homeowners can benefit from double-pane windows.<\/li>\n<li>Grounds: Double-pane windows are much more energy efficient than single-pane windows. Also, double-pane windows block distracting outside noise.<\/li>\n<li>Warrant: Double-pane windows keep houses cooler in summer and warmer in winter, and they qualify for the tax break for energy-efficient home improvements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The purest version of Rogerian argumentation (named for its creator, Carl Rogers) actually aims for true compromise between two positions. It can be particularly appropriate when the dialectic you are addressing remains truly unresolved. However, the Rogerian method has been put into service as a motivational technique, as in this example:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s02_l07\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Core argument: First-semester college students should be required to attend three writing sessions in the college writing center.<\/li>\n<li>Common ground: Many first-semester college students struggle with college-level work and the overall transition from high school to college.<\/li>\n<li>Link between common ground and core argument: We want our students to have every chance to succeed, and students who attend at least three writing sessions in the university writing lab are 90 percent more likely to succeed in college.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Rogerian argumentation can also be an effective standard debating technique when you are arguing for a specific point of view. Begin by stating the opposing view to capture the attention of audience members who hold that position and then show how it shares common ground with your side of the point. Your goal is to persuade your audience to come to accept your point by the time they read to the end of your argument. Applying this variation to the preceding example might mean leading off with your audience\u2019s greatest misgivings about attending the writing center, by opening with something like \u201cFirst-semester college students are so busy that they should not be asked to do anything they do not really need to do.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Analytical and Problem-Solving Argumentation<\/h2>\n<p>Arguments of any kind are likely to either take a position about an issue or present a solution to a problem. Don\u2019t be surprised, though, if you end up doing both. If your goal is to analyze a text or a body of data and justify your interpretation with evidence, you are writing an <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">analytical argument<\/span><\/span>. Examples include the following:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s03_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Evaluative reviews (of restaurants, films, political candidates, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Interpretations of texts (a short story, poem, painting, piece of music, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Analyses of the causes and effects of events (9\/11, the Civil War, unemployment, etc.)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Problem-solving argumentation<\/span><\/span> is not only the most complicated but also the most important type of all. It involves several thresholds of proof. First, you have to convince readers that a problem exists. Second, you have to give a convincing description of the problem. Third, because problems often have more than one solution, you have to convince readers that your solution is the most feasible and effective. Think about the different opinions people might hold about the severity, causes, and possible solutions to these sample problems:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s03_l02\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Global warming<\/li>\n<li>Nonrenewable energy consumption<\/li>\n<li>The federal budget deficit<\/li>\n<li>Homelessness<\/li>\n<li>Rates of personal saving<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Argumentation often requires a combination of analytical and problem-solving approaches. Whether the assignment requires you to analyze, solve a problem, or both, your goal is to present your facts or solution confidently, clearly, and completely. Despite the common root word, when writing an argument, you need to guard against taking a too argumentative tone. You need to support your statements with evidence but do so without being unduly abrasive. Good argumentation allows us to disagree without being disagreeable.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Research and Revision in Argumentation<\/h2>\n<p>Your college professors are not interested in having you do in-depth research for its own sake, just to prove that you know how to incorporate a certain number of sources and document them appropriately. It is assumed that extensive research is a core feature of a strong essay. In college-level writing, research is not meant merely to provide additional support for an already fixed idea you have about the topic, or to set up a \u201cstraw man\u201d for you to knock down with ease. Don\u2019t fall into the trap of trying to make your research fit your existing argument. Research conducted in good faith will almost certainly lead you to refine your ideas about your topic, leading to multiple revisions of your work. It might cause you even to change your topic entirely. (For more on research and revision in argumentation, see <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-7-researching\/\">Chapter 7 &#8220;Researching&#8221;<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-8-revising\/\">Chapter 8 &#8220;Revising.&#8221;<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p>Revision is part of the design of higher education. If you embrace the \u201cwriting to think\u201d and \u201cwriting to learn\u201d philosophy and adopt the \u201ccomposing habits of mind\u201d outlined in <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-1-writing-to-think-and-writing-to-learn\/\">Chapter 1 &#8220;Writing to Think and Writing to Learn,&#8221;<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-2-becoming-a-critical-reader\/\">Chapter 2 &#8220;Becoming a Critical Reader,&#8221;<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-3-thinking-through-the-disciplines\/\">Chapter 3 &#8220;Thinking through the Disciplines,&#8221;<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/styleguide1x30master\/chapter\/chapter-4-joining-the-conversation\/\">Chapter 4 &#8220;Joining the Conversation,&#8221;<\/a> with each draft, you will likely rethink your positions, do additional research, and make other general changes. As you conduct additional research between drafts, you are likely to find new information that will lead you to revise your core argument. Let your research drive your work, and keep in mind that your argument will remain in flux until your final draft. In the end, every final draft you produce should feel like a small piece of a vast and never ending conversation.<\/p>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n<ul id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist\">\n<li>Argumentative reasoning relies on deduction (using multiple pieces of evidence to arrive at a single conclusion) and induction (arriving at a general conclusion from specific facts).<\/li>\n<li>You must decide which type of argumentation (classical, Toulmin, or Rogerian) is most appropriate for the rhetorical situation (voice, audience, message, tone, attitude, and reception).<\/li>\n<li>Analytical argumentation looks at a body of evidence and takes a position about it, while problem-solving argumentation tries to present a solution to a problem. These two aims of argumentation lead to very different kinds of evidence and organizational approaches.<\/li>\n<li>In argumentation, it\u2019s especially important for you to be willing to adjust your approach and even your position in the face of new evidence or new circumstances.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_n02\" class=\"im_exercises im_editable im_block\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Exercises<\/h3>\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Drawing from one of your college library databases or from the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Note 2.5 &#8220;Gallery of Web-Based Texts&#8221;<\/strong> in Chapter 2 &#8220;Becoming a Critical Reader&#8221; (perhaps a couple of articles linked to ALDaily or one of the debates in the Big Questions Essay Series), find two texts you consider to be serious efforts at academic or professional argumentation. Write up a report about the types of argumentation used in each of the two texts. Answer the following questions and give examples to support your answers:\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l03\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Does the text use primarily inductive or deductive argumentation?<\/li>\n<li>Does it use classical, Toulmin, or Rogerian argumentation?<\/li>\n<li>Is it primarily analytical or problem-solving argumentation?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>With your writing group or in a large-class discussion, discuss the types of argumentation that would be most appropriate and effective for addressing the following issues:\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l04\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Capital punishment<\/li>\n<li>Abortion<\/li>\n<li>The legal drinking age<\/li>\n<li>Climate change<\/li>\n<li>Campus security<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Come up with a controversial subject and write about how you would treat it differently depending on whether you used each of the following:\n<ol id=\"mccrimmon-ch04_s03_s04_l05\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Inductive or deductive reasoning<\/li>\n<li>Classical, Toulmin, or Rogerian argumentation<\/li>\n<li>An analytical or a problem-solving approach<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-245\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Writers Handbook. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/writers-handbook\/\">http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/writers-handbook\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":5,"menu_order":16,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Writers Handbook\",\"author\":\"Anonymous\",\"organization\":\"Anonymous\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/writers-handbook\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-245","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":408,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":838,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245\/revisions\/838"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/408"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=245"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=245"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=245"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-mcc-styleguide\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=245"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}