![\"Helicopter](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3396\/2018\/07\/24171810\/Figure-1_US-Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg\")
Figure 1. A U.S. Military helicopter spraying Agent Orange in Vietnam.The Vietnam War began in 1961 and lasted until April of 1975. Between 1961 and 1971, mixtures of <\/span>herbicide<\/span><\/a>s<\/span> were utilized by the U.S. military against the Republic of Vietnam forces<\/span>1 <\/sup><\/span>(Figure 1). The most infamous of these herbicides, <\/span>Agent Orange<\/span><\/a>, was used to deprive Vietnamese forces of crops to eat and forest canopy in which to hide.<\/span>2<\/sup><\/span> An estimated 49.3 million liters were sprayed over 2.6 million acres during the war.<\/span>3<\/sup><\/span> Within days of application, plant and animal life for kilometers were completely devastated. Agent Orange has had adverse effects on Vietnam\u2019s foliage and animal life. However, the debate continues as to whether humans that were exposed are at higher risks for certain ailments.<\/span>\n Dioxins<\/span><\/a> are an extremely prevalent and dangerous environmental pollutant.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> They are typically manufactured as products of industrial processes and incinerations.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> Agent Orange is composed of 2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid, 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid and contains traces of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)<\/span>5<\/sup><\/span> (Figure 2). Some reports have shown that approximately 3 parts per million of TCDD can be found in Agent Orange.<\/span>6<\/sup><\/span> This poses a concern for people that were exposed to Agent Orange because dioxins may accumulate in fatty tissue.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> After accumulating, dioxins can disrupt the <\/span>endocrine system<\/span><\/a> by forming unusual <\/span>enzyme<\/span><\/a> complexes that act as an intermediary in the breakdown of steroid-hormone receptors.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> Numerous studies have been conducted since the late 1960s to connect dioxin-contaminated Agent Orange to multiple illnesses such as <\/span>diabetes<\/span><\/a>, <\/span>birth defect<\/span><\/a>s<\/span>, and <\/span>cancer<\/span><\/a>s.<\/span>5 <\/sup><\/span> While some researchers argue that \u201cenvironmental dissipation, low bioavailability, the protection of overhead canopy, the properties of the herbicides, and the circumstances of application\u201d would lead to a low chance of exposure for troops, others found statistical associations between the herbicide and the aforementioned ailments.<\/span>7<\/sup><\/span> Surprisingly, a fair portion of these studies have rendered inconclusive results when considering human impairments.<\/span>\n Chemical components of Agent Orange are composed of two primary compounds with trace elements of TCDD (Figure 2).<\/span>13<\/sup><\/span>\n [caption id=\"attachment_151\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"] In the late 1960s, evidence linking dioxins to birth defects in mice and reports of birth defects in Vietnam began to arise.<\/span>2<\/sup><\/span> On October 31 of 1971, the U.S. ceased tactical herbicide missions in Vietnam.<\/span>7<\/sup><\/span> One year prior to this cessation, Congress had urged the Department of Defense to work in unison with the <\/span>National Academy of Sciences<\/span><\/a> to conduct a study on possible effects of Agent Orange exposure.<\/span>3<\/sup><\/span> This study found an association between dioxin and birth defects, but the link was deemed statistically insignificant.<\/span>3<\/sup><\/span> These results did not suppress interest in Agent Orange. Between 1979 and 1990, federal departments and agencies in the U.S. helped sponsor over 50 studies focused on the herbicide<\/span>7<\/sup><\/span> (Figure 3). Although all of these research programs failed at yielding a definitive assessment, many found modest associations between illnesses and Agent Orange.<\/span>\n[caption id=\"attachment_154\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"849\"] In 1991, Congress passed legislation that directed the Secretary of the Department of Veterans Affairs to work with the National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, to research Agent Orange.<\/span>7<\/sup><\/span> Researchers at the Institute of Medicine found statistical associations between dioxin exposure and type 2 diabetes, many types of leukemia, Hodgkin\u2019s disease, non-Hodgkin\u2019s lymphoma, prostate and respiratory cancers, heart disease, Parkinson\u2019s disease, and birth defects among other ailments.<\/span>7<\/sup><\/span> A noteworthy study conducted in 2006 combined data from 22 other studies to conclude Agent Orange exposure is linked to increased risks of birth defects<\/span>3 <\/sup><\/span> (Figure 4). Two researchers from Texas also found a <\/span>correlation<\/span><\/a> among dioxins, diabetes, and cancer in <\/span>Ranch Hand<\/span><\/a> veterans after they adjusted for calendar period, days of spraying, and time spent in Asia.<\/span>5<\/sup><\/span> These studies demonstrate the many harmful effects of Agent Orange. However, there remains a degree of uncertainty concerning the herbicide that has had policy implications and environmental impacts.<\/span>\n[caption id=\"attachment_155\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"567\"] As of 2014, the U.S. government has spent billions of dollars on the health care of American soldiers exposed to Agent Orange. U.S. military forces were not the only people affected by the herbicide. In Vietnam, an estimated 4.8 million people came into contact with Agent Orange.<\/span>3<\/sup><\/span>\n Yet, the U.S. government has been slow to funnel aid to the Vietnamese. During President George W. Bush\u2019s second term, Congress began distributing several million dollars to fund a cleanup project in Da Nang, Vietnam, which is expected to be completed by 2016.<\/span>8,9<\/sup><\/span> Da Nang has exceedingly high levels of dioxin, shrubs and weeds still cannot grow there.<\/span>6<\/sup><\/span> Aside from this cleanup, the U.S. government has refused to acknowledge their responsibility for the health effects Agent Orange has had on the Vietnamese. Benefits enjoyed by U.S. veterans have yet to be extended to civilians living in the dioxin saturated areas of Vietnam.<\/span>9<\/sup><\/span> Many U.S. veterans, irritated with government inaction have moved to Vietnam to help cleanup efforts.<\/span>10 <\/sup><\/span> One veteran quipped, \u201cWe get more support from the government of Norway\u201d in a recent interview.<\/span>10<\/sup><\/span> Some find hope for U.S. reparation to Vietnam in the rise of China as an international global competitor. The U.S. and Vietnam have a mutual interest in balancing Chinese <\/span>hegemony<\/span><\/a>.<\/span>10<\/sup><\/span> President Obama has hinted at shifting from wars in Iraq and Afghanistan to Asia, in order to profit from the region\u2019s rising economic prosperity while maintaining a watch on China\u2019s military forces.<\/span>8<\/sup><\/span> This foreign policy adjustment has the potential to improve U.S.-Vietnamese relations.<\/span>\n The former Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, was quoted saying, \u201cAs long as wars have existed, the environment and natural resources have been their silent victims\u201d.<\/span>11<\/sup><\/span> In the same address, Annan expressed contempt for delayed responses by many to curb the harsh effects of prolonged wars on the environment, citing the United States and its use of Agent Orange.<\/span>11<\/sup><\/span> The U.S. government maintains an inconsistent position on the issue of Agent Orange. Through allocation of resources to Da Nang, and the coverage of health care costs of U.S. veterans, the U.S. government has acknowledged the adverse environmental and health effects of Agent Orange. Despite these efforts, little monetary support is given to Vietnamese veterans and areas outside Da Nang.<\/span>\n Research suggests Agent Orange has affected not only the physical and biological environment of the 60s and 70s, but also subsequent generations of Vietnam War veterans, the civilian population, and the current environment. Forty years of research has suggested that the environment may not be the only silent victim of the Vietnam War. The U.S. government should disperse more humanitarian aid to Vietnam to alleviate the detrimental effects of Agent Orange and to improve its international reputation. History demonstrates trust amongst nations emerges from successful, cooperative engagements that overcome disagreements. Funding a large-scale cleanup project would serve as a tremendous step in the right direction for the health of the Vietnamese people and the diminishing reputation of the United States as a global leader in humanitarian efforts.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n\n","rendered":" Figure 1. A U.S. Military helicopter spraying Agent Orange in Vietnam. The Vietnam War began in 1961 and lasted until April of 1975. Between 1961 and 1971, mixtures of <\/span>herbicide<\/span><\/a>s<\/span> were utilized by the U.S. military against the Republic of Vietnam forces<\/span>1 <\/sup><\/span>(Figure 1). The most infamous of these herbicides, <\/span>Agent Orange<\/span><\/a>, was used to deprive Vietnamese forces of crops to eat and forest canopy in which to hide.<\/span>2<\/sup><\/span> An estimated 49.3 million liters were sprayed over 2.6 million acres during the war.<\/span>3<\/sup><\/span> Within days of application, plant and animal life for kilometers were completely devastated. Agent Orange has had adverse effects on Vietnam\u2019s foliage and animal life. However, the debate continues as to whether humans that were exposed are at higher risks for certain ailments.<\/span>\n<\/p>\n Dioxins<\/span><\/a> are an extremely prevalent and dangerous environmental pollutant.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> They are typically manufactured as products of industrial processes and incinerations.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> Agent Orange is composed of 2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid, 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid and contains traces of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)<\/span>5<\/sup><\/span> (Figure 2). Some reports have shown that approximately 3 parts per million of TCDD can be found in Agent Orange.<\/span>6<\/sup><\/span> This poses a concern for people that were exposed to Agent Orange because dioxins may accumulate in fatty tissue.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span> After accumulating, dioxins can disrupt the <\/span>endocrine system<\/span><\/a> by forming unusual <\/span>enzyme<\/span><\/a> complexes that act as an intermediary in the breakdown of steroid-hormone receptors.<\/span>4<\/sup><\/span>![\"Molecular](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3396\/2018\/07\/24171813\/Figure-2-1_1000px-24-D.svg-copy.jpg\")
Figure 2a. Molecular structure of 2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid.
\nCourtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.[\/caption][caption id=\"attachment_152\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]![\"Molecular](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3396\/2018\/07\/24171815\/Figure-2-2_245-T.svg-copy.jpg\")
Figure 2b. Molecular structure of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid.
\nCourtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.[\/caption][caption id=\"attachment_153\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]![\"Molecular](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3396\/2018\/07\/24171818\/Figure-2-3_Dioxin-2D-skeletal.svg-copy.jpg\")
Figure 2c. Molecular structure of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) or Dioxin.
\nCourtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.[\/caption]\n![\"Proportion](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3396\/2018\/07\/24171821\/Figure-3_1024px-Aerial-herbicide-spray-missions-in-Southern-Vietnam-1965-1971.jpg\")
Figure 3. Aerial herbicide spray missions in southern Vietnam between 1965 and 1971.
\nCourtesy of the U.S. Army, 2011. Public Domain.[\/caption]\n![\"Mother](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3396\/2018\/07\/24171824\/Figure-4_Two_Vietnameses_pose_in_front_of_the_billboard.jpg\")
Figure 4. A Vietnamese mother holds her son who has been physically and mentally handicapped since birth due to her exposure to Agent Orange.
\nPhotograph by Alexis Duclos, 2004. CC BY-SA 3.0.[\/caption]\n
\nReferences<\/h4>\n
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Cain W. Crouse<\/h2>\n
Herbicides were sprayed by military forces of the United States during the Vietnam War (1961-1971). A debate has been waged since the early 70\u2019s as to whether the use herbicides are associated with diabetes, cancer, birth defects, and other serious ailments. While this association has been denied, the effects of herbicide use in Vietnam linger.<\/h5>\n
<\/p>\n
\nCourtesy of the U.S. Army. Public Domain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n