{"id":1954,"date":"2017-07-20T00:15:36","date_gmt":"2017-07-20T00:15:36","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-ncc-zeliart\/?post_type=chapter&p=1954"},"modified":"2018-08-22T13:01:12","modified_gmt":"2018-08-22T13:01:12","slug":"late-empire-arch-of-constantine-2","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-ncc-zeliart\/chapter\/late-empire-arch-of-constantine-2\/","title":{"raw":"Late Empire: Arch of Constantine","rendered":"Late Empire: Arch of Constantine"},"content":{"raw":"
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Arch of Constantine, 312-315 C.E., and older spolia, marble and porphyry, Rome<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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The Emperor Constantine, called Constantine the Great, was significant for several reasons. These include his political transformation of the Roman Empire, his support for Christianity, and his founding of Constantinople (modern day Istanbul). Constantine\u2019s status as an agent of change also extended into the realms of art and architecture. The Triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome is not only a superb example of the ideological and stylistic changes Constantine\u2019s reign brought to art, but also demonstrates the emperor\u2019s careful adherence to traditional forms of Roman Imperial art and architecture.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Location and Appearance<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Reconstruction of the location of the Arch of Constantine (lower left) and the sculpture of the Colossus of the Sun (center)\u2014both situated between the Temple of Venus and Roma (far left) and the Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum\u2014right), model \u00a9 2008 The Regents of the University of California; image \u00a9 2008 The Board of Visitors of the University of Virginia. Courtesy Dr. Bernard Frischer (Rome Reborn 2.0)<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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The Arch of Constantine is located along the Via Triumphalis in Rome, and it is situated between the Flavian Amphitheater (better known as the Colosseum) and the Temple of Venus and Roma. This location was significant, as the arch was a highly visible example of connective architecture that linked the area of the\u00a0Forum Romanum (Roman Forum)<\/a>\u00a0to the major entertainment and public bathing complexes of central Rome.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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[What was the Via Triumphalis?]<\/a><\/div>\r\n
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The monumental arch stands approximately 20 meters high, 25 meters wide, and 7 meters deep. Three portals punctuate the exceptional width of the arch, each flanked by partially engaged Corinthian columns. The central opening is approximately 12 meters high, above which are identical inscribed marble panels, one on each side, that read:<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the Greatest, pious, fortunate, the Senate and people of Rome, by inspiration of divinity and his own great mind with his righteous arms on both the tyrant and his faction in one instant in rightful battle he avenged the republic, dedicated this arch as a memorial to his military victory<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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The end of the Tetrarchy<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Frieze with Constantine\u2019s siege of Maxentius\u2019s troops at Verona (before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge), Arch of Constantine (south side) , 312-315 C.E. and older spolia, marble and porphyry, Rome<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Beginning in the late 3rd century, the Roman Empire was ruled by four co-emperors (two senior emperors and two junior emperors), in an effort to bring political stability after the turbulent 3rd century. But in 312 C.E., Constantine took control over the Western Roman Empire by defeating his co-emperor Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (and soon after became the sole ruler of the empire). The inscription on the arch refers to Maxentius as the tyrant and portrays Constantine as the rightful ruler of the Western Empire. Curiously, the inscription also attributes the victory to Constantine\u2019s \u201cgreat mind\u201d and the inspiration of a singular divinity. The mention of divine inspiration has been interpreted by some scholars as a coded reference to Constantine\u2019s developing interest in Christian monotheism.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Map of the Roman Empire<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Sculpture from different eras<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Perhaps the most striking feature of the Arch is its eclectic and stylistically varied relief sculptures. Some aspects of the sculpture are quite standard, like the Victoria (or Nike) figures that occupy the spandrels above the central archway or the typical architectural moldings found in most imperial Roman public and religious architecture (below).<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Victoria (Nike) figures (personifications of victory, spandrels, Arch of Constantine (north side), 312-315 C.E. and older spolia, marble and porphyry, Rome<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Other sculpted elements, however, show a multiplicity of styles. In fact, most scholars accept that many of the sculptures of the arch were spolia (the reuse of building stone or decorative sculpture on a new monument) taken from older monuments dating to the 2nd century C.E. Although there is some scholarly disagreement on the origins of the sculptures, their imperial style corresponds to those of the reigns of Trajan (ruled 98-117 C.E.\u2014the figures surmounting the decorative columns), Hadrian (ruled 117-138 C.E.\u2014the middle register roundels), and Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161-180 C.E.\u2014the large panel reliefs on the top registers). Most of the reliefs feature the emperors participating in codified activities that demonstrate the ruler\u2019s authority and piety by addressing troops, defeating enemies, distributing largesse, and offering sacrifices.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Diagram of the Arch of Constantine showing architectural features and spolia, 312-315 C.E., Rome\u00a0(link to large image)<\/a><\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Some sculptural elements of the structure also date to Constantine\u2019s reign, most notably the frieze which is located immediately above the portals. These relief sculptures are of a drastically different style and narrative content when compared with the spoliated (older, borrowed) sections (below, left); Constantine\u2019s relief sculptures (below, right) feature squat and blocky figures that are more abstract than they are naturalistic.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Two reliefs from the Arch of Constantine: left: roundel showing Sacrifice to Apollo, era of Hadrian, c. 117-138 C.E.; right: detail, Distribution of Largesse, era of Constantine, 312-315<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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The Constantinian reliefs also depict historical, rather than general events related to Constantine, including his rise to power and\u00a0victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge<\/a>. There is also a scene of\u00a0Constantine distributing largesse<\/a>\u00a0(funds) to the public\u2014recalling the scenes of emperors from the earlier sculptures.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Clarity of form<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Regarding style, the relief figures from Constantine\u2019s age still seem like outliers. Yet in comparison to the idealized naturalism of the earlier sculptural elements (for example, in the roundels in the image below), the thick, bold outlines of the Constantinian figures render them remarkably legible to passersby. While the Constantinian figures lack natural aesthetics, their clarity of form ensured that they were informative and communicated Constantine\u2019s official (and celebrated) history to viewers of his own time.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Reliefs from the south side of the Arch of Constantine. Roundels, Aftermath of a lion hunt (left) and Sacrifice to Hercules (right), era of Hadrian, c. 117-138 C.E. and the frieze below, showing the Distribution of Largesse, era of Constantine, 312-315 C.E.<\/h4>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Analysis and Meaning<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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Until relatively recently, art historians viewed the blocky sculptures and use of spolia in the arch as signs of poor craftsmanship, deficient artistry, and economic decline in the late Roman Empire (this reading is now almost wholly rejected by art historians). Even one of the most prolific and influential art historians of the modern age, Bernard Berenson, titled his short book on the arch, The Arch of Constantine: The Decline of Form. More recently, however, analysis of the arch has focused on the political and ideological goals of Constantine and the objectives of the artists, which has highlighted new possibilities for the interpretation of the arch.<\/div>\r\n
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If, indeed, the spoliated (older) material from the arch can be traced to the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, then it situates Constantine as one worthy of the same level of reverence as those emperors\u2014all of whom earned deserved levels of acclaim. This was vitally important to Constantine, who had himself essentially bypassed lawful succession and usurped power from others. Moreover, Constantine encouraged major social changes in Rome, such as decriminalizing Christianity. Any religious change was a threat to the ruling and political classes of Rome. By aligning himself with well-regarded emperors of Rome\u2019s 2nd-century C.E. golden age, Constantine was signaling that he intended to model his rule after earlier, successful leaders.<\/div>\r\n
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Essay by Dr. Andrew Findley<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
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Arch of Constantine, 312-315 C.E., and older spolia, marble and porphyry, Rome<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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The Emperor Constantine, called Constantine the Great, was significant for several reasons. These include his political transformation of the Roman Empire, his support for Christianity, and his founding of Constantinople (modern day Istanbul). Constantine\u2019s status as an agent of change also extended into the realms of art and architecture. The Triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome is not only a superb example of the ideological and stylistic changes Constantine\u2019s reign brought to art, but also demonstrates the emperor\u2019s careful adherence to traditional forms of Roman Imperial art and architecture.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Location and Appearance<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n
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Reconstruction of the location of the Arch of Constantine (lower left) and the sculpture of the Colossus of the Sun (center)\u2014both situated between the Temple of Venus and Roma (far left) and the Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum\u2014right), model \u00a9 2008 The Regents of the University of California; image \u00a9 2008 The Board of Visitors of the University of Virginia. Courtesy Dr. Bernard Frischer (Rome Reborn 2.0)<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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The Arch of Constantine is located along the Via Triumphalis in Rome, and it is situated between the Flavian Amphitheater (better known as the Colosseum) and the Temple of Venus and Roma. This location was significant, as the arch was a highly visible example of connective architecture that linked the area of the\u00a0Forum Romanum (Roman Forum)<\/a>\u00a0to the major entertainment and public bathing complexes of central Rome.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[What was the Via Triumphalis?]<\/a><\/div>\n
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The monumental arch stands approximately 20 meters high, 25 meters wide, and 7 meters deep. Three portals punctuate the exceptional width of the arch, each flanked by partially engaged Corinthian columns. The central opening is approximately 12 meters high, above which are identical inscribed marble panels, one on each side, that read:<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the Greatest, pious, fortunate, the Senate and people of Rome, by inspiration of divinity and his own great mind with his righteous arms on both the tyrant and his faction in one instant in rightful battle he avenged the republic, dedicated this arch as a memorial to his military victory<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n
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The end of the Tetrarchy<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n
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Frieze with Constantine\u2019s siege of Maxentius\u2019s troops at Verona (before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge), Arch of Constantine (south side) , 312-315 C.E. and older spolia, marble and porphyry, Rome<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Beginning in the late 3rd century, the Roman Empire was ruled by four co-emperors (two senior emperors and two junior emperors), in an effort to bring political stability after the turbulent 3rd century. But in 312 C.E., Constantine took control over the Western Roman Empire by defeating his co-emperor Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (and soon after became the sole ruler of the empire). The inscription on the arch refers to Maxentius as the tyrant and portrays Constantine as the rightful ruler of the Western Empire. Curiously, the inscription also attributes the victory to Constantine\u2019s \u201cgreat mind\u201d and the inspiration of a singular divinity. The mention of divine inspiration has been interpreted by some scholars as a coded reference to Constantine\u2019s developing interest in Christian monotheism.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Map of the Roman Empire<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Sculpture from different eras<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n
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Perhaps the most striking feature of the Arch is its eclectic and stylistically varied relief sculptures. Some aspects of the sculpture are quite standard, like the Victoria (or Nike) figures that occupy the spandrels above the central archway or the typical architectural moldings found in most imperial Roman public and religious architecture (below).<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Victoria (Nike) figures (personifications of victory, spandrels, Arch of Constantine (north side), 312-315 C.E. and older spolia, marble and porphyry, Rome<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Other sculpted elements, however, show a multiplicity of styles. In fact, most scholars accept that many of the sculptures of the arch were spolia (the reuse of building stone or decorative sculpture on a new monument) taken from older monuments dating to the 2nd century C.E. Although there is some scholarly disagreement on the origins of the sculptures, their imperial style corresponds to those of the reigns of Trajan (ruled 98-117 C.E.\u2014the figures surmounting the decorative columns), Hadrian (ruled 117-138 C.E.\u2014the middle register roundels), and Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161-180 C.E.\u2014the large panel reliefs on the top registers). Most of the reliefs feature the emperors participating in codified activities that demonstrate the ruler\u2019s authority and piety by addressing troops, defeating enemies, distributing largesse, and offering sacrifices.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Diagram of the Arch of Constantine showing architectural features and spolia, 312-315 C.E., Rome\u00a0(link to large image)<\/a><\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Some sculptural elements of the structure also date to Constantine\u2019s reign, most notably the frieze which is located immediately above the portals. These relief sculptures are of a drastically different style and narrative content when compared with the spoliated (older, borrowed) sections (below, left); Constantine\u2019s relief sculptures (below, right) feature squat and blocky figures that are more abstract than they are naturalistic.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Two reliefs from the Arch of Constantine: left: roundel showing Sacrifice to Apollo, era of Hadrian, c. 117-138 C.E.; right: detail, Distribution of Largesse, era of Constantine, 312-315<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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The Constantinian reliefs also depict historical, rather than general events related to Constantine, including his rise to power and\u00a0victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge<\/a>. There is also a scene of\u00a0Constantine distributing largesse<\/a>\u00a0(funds) to the public\u2014recalling the scenes of emperors from the earlier sculptures.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Clarity of form<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n
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Regarding style, the relief figures from Constantine\u2019s age still seem like outliers. Yet in comparison to the idealized naturalism of the earlier sculptural elements (for example, in the roundels in the image below), the thick, bold outlines of the Constantinian figures render them remarkably legible to passersby. While the Constantinian figures lack natural aesthetics, their clarity of form ensured that they were informative and communicated Constantine\u2019s official (and celebrated) history to viewers of his own time.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Reliefs from the south side of the Arch of Constantine. Roundels, Aftermath of a lion hunt (left) and Sacrifice to Hercules (right), era of Hadrian, c. 117-138 C.E. and the frieze below, showing the Distribution of Largesse, era of Constantine, 312-315 C.E.<\/h4>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Analysis and Meaning<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n
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Until relatively recently, art historians viewed the blocky sculptures and use of spolia in the arch as signs of poor craftsmanship, deficient artistry, and economic decline in the late Roman Empire (this reading is now almost wholly rejected by art historians). Even one of the most prolific and influential art historians of the modern age, Bernard Berenson, titled his short book on the arch, The Arch of Constantine: The Decline of Form. More recently, however, analysis of the arch has focused on the political and ideological goals of Constantine and the objectives of the artists, which has highlighted new possibilities for the interpretation of the arch.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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If, indeed, the spoliated (older) material from the arch can be traced to the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, then it situates Constantine as one worthy of the same level of reverence as those emperors\u2014all of whom earned deserved levels of acclaim. This was vitally important to Constantine, who had himself essentially bypassed lawful succession and usurped power from others. Moreover, Constantine encouraged major social changes in Rome, such as decriminalizing Christianity. Any religious change was a threat to the ruling and political classes of Rome. By aligning himself with well-regarded emperors of Rome\u2019s 2nd-century C.E. golden age, Constantine was signaling that he intended to model his rule after earlier, successful leaders.<\/div>\n
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Essay by Dr. Andrew Findley<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t
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Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div>