{"id":2403,"date":"2020-06-11T16:20:23","date_gmt":"2020-06-11T16:20:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-newpaltz-engcomp1\/?post_type=chapter&p=2403"},"modified":"2021-09-27T15:29:27","modified_gmt":"2021-09-27T15:29:27","slug":"approaches-to-argument","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-newpaltz-engcomp1\/chapter\/approaches-to-argument\/","title":{"raw":"Approaches to Argument","rendered":"Approaches to Argument"},"content":{"raw":"

There are three basic ways to conceptualize argumentative\/persuasive writing. The Aristotelian\/Classical model and the Rogerian models provide easy-to-follow structures for organizing an argument essay. Note that the Toumlin method has more to do with analyzing an argument, but it can also be useful for considering underlying assumptions.<\/h2>\r\n \r\n

Aristotelian or Classical Argument Model<\/h1>\r\n\"Aristotle\"\r\n\r\nThe Aristotelian or classical argument is a style of argument developed by the famous Greek philosopher and rhetorician,\u00a0Aristotle<\/strong>. In this style of argument, your\u00a0goal as a writer is to convince your\u00a0audience of something. The goal is to use a series of strategies to persuade your audience to adopt your side of the issue. Although\u00a0ethos<\/strong>,\u00a0pathos<\/strong>, and\u00a0logos<\/strong>\u00a0play a role in any argument, this style of argument utilizes them in the most persuasive ways possible.\r\n\r\nOf course, your professor may require some variations, but here is the basic format for an Aristotelian, or classical, argumentative essay:\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Introduce your issue.<\/strong>\u00a0At the end of your introduction, most professors will ask you to present your thesis\/claim<\/strong><\/span>. The idea is to present your readers with your main point and then dig into it.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Background Information: <\/strong>Writers often present background information about the issue---either in the first body paragraph or in the introduction.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Present your case\u00a0<\/strong>by explaining the issue in detail and why something must be done or a way of thinking is not working. This will take place over several paragraphs.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Address the opposition.<\/strong>\u00a0Use a paragraph or two to explain the other side. Refute the opposition one point at a time.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Present your conclusion.<\/strong>\u00a0In your conclusion, you should remind your readers of your main point or thesis and summarize the key points of your argument. If you are arguing for some kind of change, this is a good place to give your audience a call to action. Tell them what they could do to make a change.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n \r\n

    <\/h1>\r\n

    <\/h1>\r\n

    Rogerian Argument Model<\/h1>\r\n\"CarlWhen most of us think of argument, we think about winners of arguments and losers of arguments. Arguments, even sometimes academic arguments, can be strong and forceful. An Aristotelian or classical argument is a strong, \u201cthis is my assertion and here\u2019s why I am right\u201d kind of argument. But that kind of argument isn\u2019t going to work in all situations. When your audience is a really difficult one in the sense that you know your audience isn\u2019t going to completely agree with your side of the issue, it can be a good idea to try to find a middle ground. The Rogerian argument finds that middle ground.\r\n\r\nBased on the work of psychologist\u00a0Carl Rogers\u00a0<\/strong>(pictured on the right), a Rogerian argument focuses on finding a middle ground between the author and the audience. This type of argument can be extremely persuasive and can help you, as a writer, understand your own biases and how you might work to find common ground with others.\r\n\r\nHere is a summary of the basic strategy for a Rogerian argument, and the infographic on the following page should be helpful as well.\r\n
      \r\n \t
    1. In your essay, first,\u00a0introduce the problem<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. Acknowledge the other side<\/strong>\u00a0before you present your side of the issue. This may take several paragraphs.<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Next, you should carefully\u00a0present your side<\/strong>\u00a0of the issue in a way that does not dismiss the other side. This may also take several paragraphs.<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. You should then work to\u00a0bring the two sides together<\/strong>. Help your audience see the benefits of the middle ground. Make your proposal for the middle ground here, and be sure to use an even, respectful tone. This should be a key focus of\u00a0your essay and may take several paragraphs.<\/li>\r\n \t
    5. Finally, in your conclusion,\u00a0remind your audience of the balanced perspective<\/strong>\u00a0you have presented and make it clear how both sides benefit when they meet in the middle.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n \r\n

      Toulmin Argument Method<\/h1>\r\n\"StephenThe Toulmin method, developed by philosopher\u00a0Stephen Toulmin,<\/strong>\u00a0i<\/strong>s essentially a structure for\u00a0analyzing\u00a0arguments.<\/strong> <\/em>But the elements for analysis are so clear and structured that many professors now have students write argumentative essays with the elements of the Toulmin method in mind.\r\n\r\nThis type of argument works well when there are no clear truths or absolute solutions to a problem. Toulmin arguments take into account the complex nature of most situations.\r\n\r\nThere are six elements for analyzing, and, in this case, presenting arguments that are important to the Toulmin method.\r\n\r\nThese elements of a Toulmin analysis can help you as both a reader and a writer. When you\u2019re analyzing arguments as a reader, you can look for these elements to help you understand the argument and evaluate its validity. When you\u2019re writing an argument, you can include\u00a0these same elements\u00a0in\u00a0to ensure your audience will see the validity in your claims.\r\n

      Claims<\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0claim<\/strong>\u00a0is a statement of opinion that the author is asking her or his audience to accept as true.\r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n\r\nExample:<\/strong>There should be more laws to regulate texting while driving in order to cut down on dangerous car accidents.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      Grounds<\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0grounds<\/strong>\u00a0are the facts, data, or reasoning upon which the claim is based. Essentially, the grounds are the facts making the case for the claim.\r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n\r\nExample:<\/strong>The National Safety Council estimates that 1.6 million car accidents per year are caused by cell phone use and texting.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      Warrant<\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0warrant<\/strong>\u00a0is what links the grounds to the claim. This is what makes the audience understand how the grounds are connected to supporting the claim. Sometimes, the warrant is implicit (not directly stated), but the warrant can be stated directly as well. As a writer, you are making assumptions about what your audience already believes, so you have to think about how clear your warrant is and if you need to state it directly for your audience. You must also think about whether or not a warrant is actually an unproven claim.\r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n\r\nExample:<\/strong>Being distracted by texting on a cell phone while driving a car is dangerous and causes accidents.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      Backing<\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0backing<\/strong>\u00a0gives additional support for the claim by addressing different questions related to your claim.\r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n\r\nExample:<\/strong>With greater fines and more education about the consequences, people might think twice about texting and driving.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      Qualifier<\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0qualifier<\/strong>\u00a0is essentially the limits to the claim or an understanding that the claim is not true in all situations. Qualifiers add strength to claims because they help the audience understand the author does not expect her or his opinion to be true all of the time or for her or his ideas to work all of the time. If writers use qualifiers that are too broad, such as \u201calways\u201d or \u201cnever,\u201d their claims can be really difficult to support. Qualifiers like \u201csome\u201d or \u201cmany\u201d help limit the claim, which can add strength to the claim.\r\n
      \r\n
      <\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nExample:<\/strong>There should be more laws to regulate texting while driving in order to cut down on some of the dangerous car accidents that happen each year.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      Rebuttal<\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0rebuttal<\/strong>\u00a0is when the author addresses the opposing views. The author can use a rebuttal to pre-empt counter arguments, making the original argument stronger.\r\n
      \r\n
      <\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nExample:<\/strong>Although police officers are busy already, making anti-texting laws a priority saves time, money, and lives. Local departments could add extra staff to address this important priority.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n____\r\n
      Taken from Excelsior Online Writing Lab<\/strong><\/em>:\u00a0https:\/\/owl.excelsior.edu\/argument-and-critical-thinking\/<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n ","rendered":"

      There are three basic ways to conceptualize argumentative\/persuasive writing. The Aristotelian\/Classical model and the Rogerian models provide easy-to-follow structures for organizing an argument essay. Note that the Toumlin method has more to do with analyzing an argument, but it can also be useful for considering underlying assumptions.<\/h2>\n

       <\/p>\n

      Aristotelian or Classical Argument Model<\/h1>\n

      \"Aristotle\"<\/p>\n

      The Aristotelian or classical argument is a style of argument developed by the famous Greek philosopher and rhetorician,\u00a0Aristotle<\/strong>. In this style of argument, your\u00a0goal as a writer is to convince your\u00a0audience of something. The goal is to use a series of strategies to persuade your audience to adopt your side of the issue. Although\u00a0ethos<\/strong>,\u00a0pathos<\/strong>, and\u00a0logos<\/strong>\u00a0play a role in any argument, this style of argument utilizes them in the most persuasive ways possible.<\/p>\n

      Of course, your professor may require some variations, but here is the basic format for an Aristotelian, or classical, argumentative essay:<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Introduce your issue.<\/strong>\u00a0At the end of your introduction, most professors will ask you to present your thesis\/claim<\/strong><\/span>. The idea is to present your readers with your main point and then dig into it.<\/li>\n
      2. Background Information: <\/strong>Writers often present background information about the issue—either in the first body paragraph or in the introduction.<\/li>\n
      3. Present your case\u00a0<\/strong>by explaining the issue in detail and why something must be done or a way of thinking is not working. This will take place over several paragraphs.<\/li>\n
      4. Address the opposition.<\/strong>\u00a0Use a paragraph or two to explain the other side. Refute the opposition one point at a time.<\/li>\n
      5. Present your conclusion.<\/strong>\u00a0In your conclusion, you should remind your readers of your main point or thesis and summarize the key points of your argument. If you are arguing for some kind of change, this is a good place to give your audience a call to action. Tell them what they could do to make a change.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

         <\/p>\n

        <\/h1>\n

        <\/h1>\n

        Rogerian Argument Model<\/h1>\n

        \"CarlWhen most of us think of argument, we think about winners of arguments and losers of arguments. Arguments, even sometimes academic arguments, can be strong and forceful. An Aristotelian or classical argument is a strong, \u201cthis is my assertion and here\u2019s why I am right\u201d kind of argument. But that kind of argument isn\u2019t going to work in all situations. When your audience is a really difficult one in the sense that you know your audience isn\u2019t going to completely agree with your side of the issue, it can be a good idea to try to find a middle ground. The Rogerian argument finds that middle ground.<\/p>\n

        Based on the work of psychologist\u00a0Carl Rogers\u00a0<\/strong>(pictured on the right), a Rogerian argument focuses on finding a middle ground between the author and the audience. This type of argument can be extremely persuasive and can help you, as a writer, understand your own biases and how you might work to find common ground with others.<\/p>\n

        Here is a summary of the basic strategy for a Rogerian argument, and the infographic on the following page should be helpful as well.<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. In your essay, first,\u00a0introduce the problem<\/strong>.<\/li>\n
        2. Acknowledge the other side<\/strong>\u00a0before you present your side of the issue. This may take several paragraphs.<\/li>\n
        3. Next, you should carefully\u00a0present your side<\/strong>\u00a0of the issue in a way that does not dismiss the other side. This may also take several paragraphs.<\/li>\n
        4. You should then work to\u00a0bring the two sides together<\/strong>. Help your audience see the benefits of the middle ground. Make your proposal for the middle ground here, and be sure to use an even, respectful tone. This should be a key focus of\u00a0your essay and may take several paragraphs.<\/li>\n
        5. Finally, in your conclusion,\u00a0remind your audience of the balanced perspective<\/strong>\u00a0you have presented and make it clear how both sides benefit when they meet in the middle.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

           <\/p>\n

          Toulmin Argument Method<\/h1>\n

          \"StephenThe Toulmin method, developed by philosopher\u00a0Stephen Toulmin,<\/strong>\u00a0i<\/strong>s essentially a structure for\u00a0analyzing\u00a0arguments.<\/strong> <\/em>But the elements for analysis are so clear and structured that many professors now have students write argumentative essays with the elements of the Toulmin method in mind.<\/p>\n

          This type of argument works well when there are no clear truths or absolute solutions to a problem. Toulmin arguments take into account the complex nature of most situations.<\/p>\n

          There are six elements for analyzing, and, in this case, presenting arguments that are important to the Toulmin method.<\/p>\n

          These elements of a Toulmin analysis can help you as both a reader and a writer. When you\u2019re analyzing arguments as a reader, you can look for these elements to help you understand the argument and evaluate its validity. When you\u2019re writing an argument, you can include\u00a0these same elements\u00a0in\u00a0to ensure your audience will see the validity in your claims.<\/p>\n

          Claims<\/h2>\n

          The\u00a0claim<\/strong>\u00a0is a statement of opinion that the author is asking her or his audience to accept as true.<\/p>\n

          \n
          \n

          Example:<\/strong>There should be more laws to regulate texting while driving in order to cut down on dangerous car accidents.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Grounds<\/h2>\n

          The\u00a0grounds<\/strong>\u00a0are the facts, data, or reasoning upon which the claim is based. Essentially, the grounds are the facts making the case for the claim.<\/p>\n

          \n
          \n

          Example:<\/strong>The National Safety Council estimates that 1.6 million car accidents per year are caused by cell phone use and texting.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Warrant<\/h2>\n

          The\u00a0warrant<\/strong>\u00a0is what links the grounds to the claim. This is what makes the audience understand how the grounds are connected to supporting the claim. Sometimes, the warrant is implicit (not directly stated), but the warrant can be stated directly as well. As a writer, you are making assumptions about what your audience already believes, so you have to think about how clear your warrant is and if you need to state it directly for your audience. You must also think about whether or not a warrant is actually an unproven claim.<\/p>\n

          \n
          \n

          Example:<\/strong>Being distracted by texting on a cell phone while driving a car is dangerous and causes accidents.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Backing<\/h2>\n

          The\u00a0backing<\/strong>\u00a0gives additional support for the claim by addressing different questions related to your claim.<\/p>\n

          \n
          \n

          Example:<\/strong>With greater fines and more education about the consequences, people might think twice about texting and driving.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Qualifier<\/h2>\n

          The\u00a0qualifier<\/strong>\u00a0is essentially the limits to the claim or an understanding that the claim is not true in all situations. Qualifiers add strength to claims because they help the audience understand the author does not expect her or his opinion to be true all of the time or for her or his ideas to work all of the time. If writers use qualifiers that are too broad, such as \u201calways\u201d or \u201cnever,\u201d their claims can be really difficult to support. Qualifiers like \u201csome\u201d or \u201cmany\u201d help limit the claim, which can add strength to the claim.<\/p>\n

          \n
          <\/div>\n
          \n

          Example:<\/strong>There should be more laws to regulate texting while driving in order to cut down on some of the dangerous car accidents that happen each year.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Rebuttal<\/h2>\n

          The\u00a0rebuttal<\/strong>\u00a0is when the author addresses the opposing views. The author can use a rebuttal to pre-empt counter arguments, making the original argument stronger.<\/p>\n

          \n
          <\/div>\n
          \n

          Example:<\/strong>Although police officers are busy already, making anti-texting laws a priority saves time, money, and lives. Local departments could add extra staff to address this important priority.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          ____<\/p>\n

          Taken from Excelsior Online Writing Lab<\/strong><\/em>:\u00a0https:\/\/owl.excelsior.edu\/argument-and-critical-thinking\/<\/div>\n

           <\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

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