{"id":126,"date":"2019-01-16T00:13:32","date_gmt":"2019-01-16T00:13:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-communication\/chapter\/3-4-language-society-and-culture\/"},"modified":"2019-01-16T00:13:32","modified_gmt":"2019-01-16T00:13:32","slug":"3-4-language-society-and-culture","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-communication\/chapter\/3-4-language-society-and-culture\/","title":{"raw":"3.4 Language, Society, and Culture","rendered":"3.4 Language, Society, and Culture"},"content":{"raw":"\n
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Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n
    \n
  1. Discuss some of the social norms that guide conversational interaction.<\/li>\n
  2. Identify some of the ways in which language varies based on cultural context.<\/li>\n
  3. Explain the role that accommodation and code-switching play in communication.<\/li>\n
  4. Discuss cultural bias in relation to specific cultural identities.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

    Society and culture influence the words that we speak, and the words that we speak influence society and culture. Such a cyclical relationship can be difficult to understand, but many of the examples throughout this chapter and examples from our own lives help illustrate this point. One of the best ways to learn about society, culture, and language is to seek out opportunities to go beyond our typical comfort zones. Studying abroad, for example, brings many challenges that can turn into valuable lessons. The following example of such a lesson comes from my friend who studied abroad in Vienna, Austria.<\/p>\n

    Although English used to employ formal (thou<\/em>, thee<\/em>) and informal pronouns (you<\/em>), today you<\/em> can be used when speaking to a professor, a parent, or a casual acquaintance. Other languages still have social norms and rules about who is to be referred to informally and formally. My friend, as was typical in the German language, referred to his professor with the formal pronoun Sie<\/em> but used the informal pronoun Du<\/em> with his fellow students since they were peers. When the professor invited some of the American exchange students to dinner, they didn\u2019t know they were about to participate in a cultural ritual that would change the way they spoke to their professor from that night on. Their professor informed them that they were going to duzen<\/em>, which meant they were going to now be able to refer to her with the informal pronoun\u2014an honor and sign of closeness for the American students. As they went around the table, each student introduced himself or herself to the professor using the formal pronoun, locked arms with her and drank (similar to the champagne toast ritual at some wedding ceremonies), and reintroduced himself or herself using the informal pronoun. For the rest of the semester, the American students still respectfully referred to the professor with her title, which translated to \u201cMrs. Doctor,\u201d but used informal pronouns, even in class, while the other students not included in the ceremony had to continue using the formal. Given that we do not use formal and informal pronouns in English anymore, there is no equivalent ritual to the German duzen<\/em>, but as we will learn next, there are many rituals in English that may be just as foreign to someone else.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Language and Social Context<\/h2>\n

    We arrive at meaning through conversational interaction, which follows many social norms and rules. As we\u2019ve already learned, rules are explicitly stated conventions (\u201cLook at me when I\u2019m talking to you.\u201d) and norms are implicit (saying you\u2019ve got to leave before you actually do to politely initiate the end to a conversation). To help conversations function meaningfully, we have learned social norms and internalized them to such an extent that we do not often consciously enact them. Instead, we rely on routines and roles (as determined by social forces) to help us proceed with verbal interaction, which also helps determine how a conversation will unfold. Our various social roles influence meaning and how we speak. For example, a person may say, \u201cAs a longtime member of this community\u2026\u201d or \u201cAs a first-generation college student\u2026\u201d Such statements cue others into the personal and social context from which we are speaking, which helps them better interpret our meaning.<\/p>\n

    One social norm that structures our communication is turn taking. People need to feel like they are contributing something to an interaction, so turn taking is a central part of how conversations play out (Crystal, 2005). Although we sometimes talk at the same time as others or interrupt them, there are numerous verbal and nonverbal cues, almost like a dance, that are exchanged between speakers that let people know when their turn will begin or end. Conversations do not always neatly progress from beginning to end with shared understanding along the way. There is a back and forth that is often verbally managed through rephrasing (\u201cLet me try that again,\u201d) and clarification (\u201cDoes that make sense?\u201d) (Crystal, 2005)<\/p>\n

    We also have certain units of speech that facilitate turn taking. Adjacency pairs<\/a><\/span> are related communication structures that come one after the other (adjacent to each other) in an interaction (Crystal, 2005). For example, questions are followed by answers, greetings are followed by responses, compliments are followed by a thank you, and informative comments are followed by an acknowledgment. These are the skeletal components that make up our verbal interactions, and they are largely social in that they facilitate our interactions. When these sequences don\u2019t work out, confusion, miscommunication, or frustration may result, as you can see in the following sequences:<\/p>\n

    <\/span>\n

    Travis: <\/strong>\n \u201cHow are you?\u201d<\/p>\n

    Wanda: <\/strong>\n \u201cDid someone tell you I\u2019m sick?\u201d<\/p>\n

    Darrell: <\/strong>\n \u201cI just wanted to let you know the meeting has been moved to three o\u2019clock.\u201d<\/p>\n

    Leigh: <\/strong>\n \u201cI had cake for breakfast this morning.\u201d<\/p>\n

    <\/p><\/div>\n

    Some conversational elements are highly scripted or ritualized, especially the beginning and end of an exchange and topic changes (Crystal, 2005). Conversations often begin with a standard greeting and then proceed to \u201csafe\u201d exchanges about things in the immediate field of experience of the communicators (a comment on the weather or noting something going on in the scene). At this point, once the ice is broken, people can move on to other more content-specific exchanges. Once conversing, before we can initiate a topic change, it is a social norm that we let the current topic being discussed play itself out or continue until the person who introduced the topic seems satisfied. We then usually try to find a relevant tie-in or segue that acknowledges the previous topic, in turn acknowledging the speaker, before actually moving on. Changing the topic without following such social conventions might indicate to the other person that you were not listening or are simply rude.<\/p>\n

    <\/p>

    \n
    \n
    \n \"3-4-0n\"<\/a>\n

    Social norms influence how conversations start and end and how speakers take turns to keep the conversation going.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Felipe Cabrera - conversation<\/a> - CC BY 2.0.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    <\/p><\/div>\n

    Ending a conversation is similarly complex. I\u2019m sure we\u2019ve all been in a situation where we are \u201ctrapped\u201d in a conversation that we need or want to get out of. Just walking away or ending a conversation without engaging in socially acceptable \u201cleave-taking behaviors\u201d would be considered a breach of social norms. Topic changes are often places where people can leave a conversation, but it is still routine for us to give a special reason for leaving, often in an apologetic tone (whether we mean it or not). Generally though, conversations come to an end through the cooperation of both people, as they offer and recognize typical signals that a topic area has been satisfactorily covered or that one or both people need to leave. It is customary in the United States for people to say they have to leave before they actually do and for that statement to be dismissed or ignored by the other person until additional leave-taking behaviors are enacted. When such cooperation is lacking, an awkward silence or abrupt ending can result, and as we\u2019ve already learned, US Americans are not big fans of silence. Silence is not viewed the same way in other cultures, which leads us to our discussion of cultural context.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Language and Cultural Context<\/h2>\n

    Culture isn\u2019t solely determined by a person\u2019s native language or nationality. It\u2019s true that languages vary by country and region and that the language we speak influences our realities, but even people who speak the same language experience cultural differences because of their various intersecting cultural identities and personal experiences. We have a tendency to view our language as a whole more favorably than other languages. Although people may make persuasive arguments regarding which languages are more pleasing to the ear or difficult or easy to learn than others, no one language enables speakers to communicate more effectively than another (McCornack, 2007).<\/p>\n

    From birth we are socialized into our various cultural identities. As with the social context, this acculturation process is a combination of explicit and implicit lessons. A child in Colombia, which is considered a more collectivist country in which people value group membership and cohesion over individualism, may not be explicitly told, \u201cYou are a member of a collectivistic culture, so you should care more about the family and community than yourself.\u201d This cultural value would be transmitted through daily actions and through language use. Just as babies acquire knowledge of language practices at an astonishing rate in their first two years of life, so do they acquire cultural knowledge and values that are embedded in those language practices. At nine months old, it is possible to distinguish babies based on their language. Even at this early stage of development, when most babies are babbling and just learning to recognize but not wholly reproduce verbal interaction patterns, a Colombian baby would sound different from a Brazilian baby, even though neither would actually be using words from their native languages of Spanish and Portuguese (Crystal, 2005).<\/p>\n

    The actual language we speak plays an important role in shaping our reality. Comparing languages, we can see differences in how we are able to talk about the world. In English, we have the words grandfather<\/em> and grandmother<\/em>, but no single word that distinguishes between a maternal grandfather and a paternal grandfather. But in Swedish, there\u2019s a specific word for each grandparent: morfar<\/em> is mother\u2019s father, farfar<\/em> is father\u2019s father, farmor<\/em> is father\u2019s mother, and mormor<\/em> is mother\u2019s mother (Crystal, 2005). In this example, we can see that the words available to us, based on the language we speak, influence how we talk about the world due to differences in and limitations of vocabulary. The notion that language shapes our view of reality and our cultural patterns is best represented by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Although some scholars argue that our reality is determined by our language, we will take a more qualified view and presume that language plays a central role in influencing our realities but doesn\u2019t determine them (Martin & Nakayama, 2010).<\/p>\n

    Culturally influenced differences in language and meaning can lead to some interesting encounters, ranging from awkward to informative to disastrous. In terms of awkwardness, you have likely heard stories of companies that failed to exhibit communication competence in their naming and\/or advertising of products in another language. For example, in Taiwan, Pepsi used the slogan \u201cCome Alive with Pepsi\u201d only to later find out that when translated it meant, \u201cPepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead\u201d (Kwintessential Limited, 2012). Similarly, American Motors introduced a new car called the Matador to the Puerto Rico market only to learn that Matador<\/em> means \u201ckiller,\u201d which wasn\u2019t very comforting to potential buyers (Kwintessential, 2012). At a more informative level, the words we use to give positive reinforcement are culturally relative. In the United States and England, parents commonly positively and negatively reinforce their child\u2019s behavior by saying, \u201cGood girl\u201d or \u201cGood boy.\u201d There isn\u2019t an equivalent for such a phrase in other European languages, so the usage in only these two countries has been traced back to the puritan influence on beliefs about good and bad behavior (Wierzbicka, 2004). In terms of disastrous consequences, one of the most publicized and deadliest cross-cultural business mistakes occurred in India in 1984. Union Carbide, an American company, controlled a plant used to make pesticides. The company underestimated the amount of cross-cultural training that would be needed to allow the local workers, many of whom were not familiar with the technology or language\/jargon used in the instructions for plant operations to do their jobs. This lack of competent communication led to a gas leak that immediately killed more than two thousand people and over time led to more than five hundred thousand injuries (Varma, 2012).<\/p>\n

    \n

    Accents and Dialects<\/h2>\n

    The documentary American Tongues<\/em>, although dated at this point, is still a fascinating look at the rich tapestry of accents and dialects that makes up American English. Dialects<\/a><\/span> are versions of languages that have distinct words, grammar, and pronunciation. Accents<\/a><\/span> are distinct styles of pronunciation (Lustig & Koester, 2006). There can be multiple accents within one dialect. For example, people in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States speak a dialect of American English that is characterized by remnants of the linguistic styles of Europeans who settled the area a couple hundred years earlier. Even though they speak this similar dialect, a person in Kentucky could still have an accent that is distinguishable from a person in western North Carolina.<\/p>\n

    <\/p>

    \n
    \n
    \n \"3-4-1n\"<\/a>\n

    American English has several dialects that vary based on region, class, and ancestry.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Wikimedia Commons<\/a> - CC BY-SA 4.0.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    <\/p><\/div>\n

    Dialects and accents can vary by region, class, or ancestry, and they influence the impressions that we make of others. When I moved to Colorado from North Carolina, I was met with a very strange look when I used the word buggy<\/em> to refer to a shopping cart. Research shows that people tend to think more positively about others who speak with a dialect similar to their own and think more negatively about people who speak differently. Of course, many people think they speak normally and perceive others to have an accent or dialect. Although dialects include the use of different words and phrases, it\u2019s the tone of voice that often creates the strongest impression. For example, a person who speaks with a Southern accent may perceive a New Englander\u2019s accent to be grating, harsh, or rude because the pitch is more nasal and the rate faster. Conversely, a New Englander may perceive a Southerner\u2019s accent to be syrupy and slow, leading to an impression that the person speaking is uneducated.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    Customs and Norms<\/h2>\n

    Social norms are culturally relative. The words used in politeness rituals in one culture can mean something completely different in another. For example, thank you<\/em> in American English acknowledges receiving something (a gift, a favor, a compliment), in British English it can mean \u201cyes\u201d similar to American English\u2019s yes, please<\/em>, and in French merci<\/em> can mean \u201cno\u201d as in \u201cno, thank you\u201d (Crystal, 2005). Additionally, what is considered a powerful language style varies from culture to culture. Confrontational language, such as swearing, can be seen as powerful in Western cultures, even though it violates some language taboos, but would be seen as immature and weak in Japan (Wetzel, 1988).<\/p>\n

    Gender also affects how we use language, but not to the extent that most people think. Although there is a widespread belief that men are more likely to communicate in a clear and straightforward way and women are more likely to communicate in an emotional and indirect way, a meta-analysis of research findings from more than two hundred studies found only small differences in the personal disclosures of men and women (Dindia & Allen, 1992). Men and women\u2019s levels of disclosure are even more similar when engaging in cross-gender communication, meaning men and woman are more similar when speaking to each other than when men speak to men or women speak to women. This could be due to the internalized pressure to speak about the other gender in socially sanctioned ways, in essence reinforcing the stereotypes when speaking to the same gender but challenging them in cross-gender encounters. Researchers also dispelled the belief that men interrupt more than women do, finding that men and women interrupt each other with similar frequency in cross-gender encounters (Dindia, 1987). These findings, which state that men and women communicate more similarly during cross-gender encounters and then communicate in more stereotypical ways in same-gender encounters, can be explained with communication accommodation theory.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    Communication Accommodation and Code-Switching<\/h2>\n

    Communication accommodation theory<\/a><\/span> is a theory that explores why and how people modify their communication to fit situational, social, cultural, and relational contexts (Giles, Taylor, & Bourhis, 1973). Within communication accommodation, conversational partners may use convergence<\/a><\/span>, meaning a person makes his or her communication more like another person\u2019s. People who are accommodating in their communication style are seen as more competent, which illustrates the benefits of communicative flexibility. In order to be flexible, of course, people have to be aware of and monitor their own and others\u2019 communication patterns. Conversely, conversational partners may use divergence<\/a><\/span>, meaning a person uses communication to emphasize the differences between his or her conversational partner and his or herself.<\/p>\n

    Convergence and divergence can take place within the same conversation and may be used by one or both conversational partners. Convergence functions to make others feel at ease, to increase understanding, and to enhance social bonds. Divergence may be used to intentionally make another person feel unwelcome or perhaps to highlight a personal, group, or cultural identity. For example, African American women use certain verbal communication patterns when communicating with other African American women as a way to highlight their racial identity and create group solidarity. In situations where multiple races interact, the women usually don\u2019t use those same patterns, instead accommodating the language patterns of the larger group. While communication accommodation might involve anything from adjusting how fast or slow you talk to how long you speak during each turn, code-switching<\/a><\/span> refers to changes in accent, dialect, or language (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). There are many reasons that people might code-switch. Regarding accents, some people hire vocal coaches or speech-language pathologists to help them alter their accent. If a Southern person thinks their accent is leading others to form unfavorable impressions, they can consciously change their accent with much practice and effort. Once their ability to speak without their Southern accent is honed, they may be able to switch very quickly between their native accent when speaking with friends and family and their modified accent when speaking in professional settings.<\/p>\n

    <\/p>

    \n
    \n
    \n \"3-4-2n\"<\/a>\n

    People who work or live in multilingual settings may engage in code-switching several times a day.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Eltpics - Welsh<\/a> - CC BY-NC 2.0.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    <\/p><\/div>\n

    Additionally, people who work or live in multilingual settings may code-switch many times throughout the day, or even within a single conversation. Increasing outsourcing and globalization have produced heightened pressures for code-switching. Call center workers in India have faced strong negative reactions from British and American customers who insist on \u201cspeaking to someone who speaks English.\u201d Although many Indians learn English in schools as a result of British colonization, their accents prove to be off-putting to people who want to get their cable package changed or book an airline ticket. Now some Indian call center workers are going through intense training to be able to code-switch and accommodate the speaking style of their customers. What is being called the \u201cAnglo-Americanization of India\u201d entails \u201caccent-neutralization,\u201d lessons on American culture (using things like Sex and the City<\/em> DVDs), and the use of Anglo-American-sounding names like Sean and Peggy (Pal, 2004). As our interactions continue to occur in more multinational contexts, the expectations for code-switching and accommodation are sure to increase. It is important for us to consider the intersection of culture and power and think critically about the ways in which expectations for code-switching may be based on cultural biases.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    Language and Cultural Bias<\/h2>\n

    In the previous example about code-switching and communication accommodation in Indian call centers, the move toward accent neutralization is a response to the \u201cracist abuse\u201d these workers receive from customers (Nadeem, 2012). Anger in Western countries about job losses and economic uncertainty has increased the amount of racially targeted verbal attacks on international call center employees. It was recently reported that more call center workers are now quitting their jobs as a result of the verbal abuse and that 25 percent of workers who have recently quit say such abuse was a major source of stress (Gentleman, 2005). Such verbal attacks are not new; they represent a common but negative way that cultural bias explicitly manifests in our language use.<\/p>\n

    Cultural bias<\/a><\/span> is a skewed way of viewing or talking about a group that is typically negative. Bias has a way of creeping into our daily language use, often under our awareness. Culturally biased language can make reference to one or more cultural identities, including race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and ability. There are other sociocultural identities that can be the subject of biased language, but we will focus our discussion on these five. Much biased language is based on stereotypes and myths that influence the words we use. Bias is both intentional and unintentional, but as we\u2019ve already discussed, we have to be accountable for what we say even if we didn\u2019t \u201cintend\u201d a particular meaning\u2014remember, meaning is generated; it doesn\u2019t exist inside our thoughts or words. We will discuss specific ways in which cultural bias manifests in our language and ways to become more aware of bias. Becoming aware of and addressing cultural bias is not the same thing as engaging in \u201cpolitical correctness.\u201d Political correctness takes awareness to the extreme but doesn\u2019t do much to address cultural bias aside from make people feel like they are walking on eggshells. That kind of pressure can lead people to avoid discussions about cultural identities or avoid people with different cultural identities. Our goal is not to eliminate all cultural bias from verbal communication or to never offend anyone, intentionally or otherwise. Instead, we will continue to use guidelines for ethical communication that we have already discussed and strive to increase our competence. The following discussion also focuses on bias rather than preferred terminology or outright discriminatory language, which will be addressed more in Chapter 8 \"Culture and Communication\"<\/a>, which discusses culture and communication.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Race<\/h2>\n

    People sometimes use euphemisms for race that illustrate bias because the terms are usually implicitly compared to the dominant group (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). For example, referring to a person as \u201curban\u201d or a neighborhood as \u201cinner city\u201d can be an accurate descriptor, but when such words are used as a substitute for racial identity, they illustrate cultural biases that equate certain races with cities and poverty. Using adjectives like articulate<\/em> or well-dressed<\/em> in statements like \u201cMy black coworker is articulate\u201d reinforces negative stereotypes even though these words are typically viewed as positive. Terms like nonwhite<\/em> set up whiteness as the norm, which implies that white people are the norm against which all other races should be compared. Biased language also reduces the diversity within certain racial groups\u2014for example, referring to anyone who looks like they are of Asian descent as Chinese or everyone who \u201clooks\u201d Latino\/a as Mexicans. Some people with racial identities other than white, including people who are multiracial, use the label person\/people of color<\/em> to indicate solidarity among groups, but it is likely that they still prefer a more specific label when referring to an individual or referencing a specific racial group.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    Gender<\/h2>\n

    Language has a tendency to exaggerate perceived and stereotypical differences between men and women. The use of the term opposite sex<\/em> presumes that men and women are opposites, like positive and negative poles of a magnet, which is obviously not true or men and women wouldn\u2019t be able to have successful interactions or relationships. A term like other gender<\/em> doesn\u2019t presume opposites and acknowledges that male and female identities and communication are more influenced by gender, which is the social and cultural meanings and norms associated with males and females, than sex, which is the physiology and genetic makeup of a male and female. One key to avoiding gendered bias in language is to avoid the generic use of he<\/em> when referring to something relevant to males and females. Instead, you can informally use a gender-neutral pronoun like they<\/em> or their<\/em> or you can use his or her<\/em> (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). When giving a series of examples, you can alternate usage of masculine and feminine pronouns, switching with each example. We have lasting gendered associations with certain occupations that have tended to be male or female dominated, which erase the presence of both genders. Other words reflect the general masculine bias present in English. The following word pairs show the gender-biased term followed by an unbiased term: waitress\/server, chairman \/ chair or chairperson, mankind\/people, cameraman \/ camera operator, mailman \/ postal worker, sportsmanship \/ fair play. Common language practices also tend to infantilize women but not men, when, for example, women are referred to as chicks<\/em>, girls<\/em>, or babes<\/em>. Since there is no linguistic equivalent that indicates the marital status of men before their name, using Ms.<\/em> instead of Miss<\/em> or Mrs.<\/em> helps reduce bias.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    Age<\/h2>\n

    Language that includes age bias can be directed toward older or younger people. Descriptions of younger people often presume recklessness or inexperience, while those of older people presume frailty or disconnection. The term elderly<\/em> generally refers to people over sixty-five, but it has connotations of weakness, which isn\u2019t accurate because there are plenty of people over sixty-five who are stronger and more athletic than people in their twenties and thirties. Even though it\u2019s generic, older people<\/em> doesn\u2019t really have negative implications. More specific words that describe groups of older people include grandmothers\/grandfathers<\/em> (even though they can be fairly young too), retirees<\/em>, or people over sixty-five<\/em> (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). Referring to people over the age of eighteen as boys<\/em> or girls<\/em> isn\u2019t typically viewed as appropriate.<\/p>\n

    <\/p>

    \n
    \n
    \n \"3-4-3n\"<\/a>\n

    Age bias can appear in language directed toward younger or older people.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Davide Mauro - Old and young<\/a> - CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    <\/p><\/div><\/div>\n

    \n

    Sexual Orientation<\/h2>\n

    Discussions of sexual and affectional orientation range from everyday conversations to contentious political and personal debates. The negative stereotypes that have been associated with homosexuality, including deviance, mental illness, and criminal behavior, continue to influence our language use (American Psychological Association, 2012). Terminology related to gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) people can be confusing, so let\u2019s spend some time raise our awareness about preferred labels. First, sexual orientation<\/em> is the term preferred to sexual preference<\/em>. Preference<\/em> suggests a voluntary choice, as in someone has a preference for cheddar or American cheese, which doesn\u2019t reflect the experience of most GLB people or research findings that show sexuality is more complex. You may also see affectional orientation<\/em> included with sexual orientation<\/em> because it acknowledges that GLB relationships, like heterosexual relationships, are about intimacy and closeness (affection) that is not just sexually based. Most people also prefer the labels gay<\/em>, lesbian<\/em>, or bisexual<\/em> to homosexual<\/em>, which is clinical and doesn\u2019t so much refer to an identity as a sex act. Language regarding romantic relationships contains bias when heterosexuality is assumed. Keep in mind that individuals are not allowed to marry someone of the same gender in most states in the United States. For example, if you ask a gay man who has been in a committed partnership for ten years if he is \u201cmarried or single,\u201d how should he answer that question? Comments comparing GLB people to \u201cnormal\u201d people, although possibly intended to be positive, reinforces the stereotype that GLB people are abnormal. Don\u2019t presume you can identify a person\u2019s sexual orientation by looking at them or talking to them. Don\u2019t assume that GLB people will \u201ccome out\u201d to you. Given that many GLB people have faced and continue to face regular discrimination, they may be cautious about disclosing their identities. However, using gender neutral terminology like partner<\/em> and avoiding other biased language mentioned previously may create a climate in which a GLB person feels comfortable disclosing his or her sexual orientation identity. Conversely, the casual use of phrases like that\u2019s gay<\/em> to mean \u201cthat\u2019s stupid\u201d may create an environment in which GLB people do not feel comfortable. Even though people don\u2019t often use the phrase to actually refer to sexual orientation, campaigns like \u201cThinkB4YouSpeak.com\u201d try to educate people about the power that language has and how we should all be more conscious of the words we use.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    Ability<\/h2>\n

    People with disabilities make up a diverse group that has increasingly come to be viewed as a cultural\/social identity group. People without disabilities are often referred to as able-bodied<\/em>. As with sexual orientation, comparing people with disabilities to \u201cnormal\u201d people implies that there is an agreed-on definition of what \u201cnormal\u201d is and that people with disabilities are \u201cabnormal.\u201d Disability<\/em> is also preferred to the word handicap<\/em>. Just because someone is disabled doesn\u2019t mean he or she is also handicapped. The environment around them rather than their disability often handicaps people with disabilities (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2010). Ignoring the environment as the source of a handicap and placing it on the person fits into a pattern of reducing people with disabilities to their disability\u2014for example, calling someone a paraplegic instead of a person with paraplegia. In many cases, as with sexual orientation, race, age, and gender, verbally marking a person as disabled isn\u2019t relevant and doesn\u2019t need spotlighting. Language used in conjunction with disabilities also tends to portray people as victims of their disability and paint pictures of their lives as gloomy, dreadful, or painful. Such descriptors are often generalizations or completely inaccurate.<\/p>\n

    \n

    \u201cGetting Critical\u201d<\/h4>\n

    Hate Speech<\/p>\n

    Hate<\/em> is a term that has many different meanings and can be used to communicate teasing, mild annoyance, or anger. The term hate<\/em>, as it relates to hate speech, has a much more complex and serious meaning. Hate<\/em> refers to extreme negative beliefs and feelings toward a group or member of a group because of their race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or ability (Waltman & Haas, 2011). We can get a better understanding of the intensity of hate by distinguishing it from anger, which is an emotion that we experience much more regularly. First, anger is directed toward an individual, while hate is directed toward a social or cultural group. Second, anger doesn\u2019t prevent a person from having sympathy for the target of his or her anger, but hate erases sympathy for the target. Third, anger is usually the result of personal insult or injury, but hate can exist and grow even with no direct interaction with the target. Fourth, anger isn\u2019t an emotion that people typically find pleasure in, while hatred can create feelings of self-righteousness and superiority that lead to pleasure. Last, anger is an emotion that usually dissipates as time passes, eventually going away, while hate can endure for much longer (Waltman & Haas, 2011). Hate speech is a verbal manifestation of this intense emotional and mental state.<\/p>\n

    Hate speech is usually used by people who have a polarized view of their own group (the in-group) and another group (the out-group). Hate speech is then used to intimidate people in the out-group and to motivate and influence members of the in-group. Hate speech often promotes hate-based violence and is also used to solidify in-group identification and attract new members (Waltman & Haas, 2011). Perpetrators of hate speech often engage in totalizing, which means they define a person or a group based on one quality or characteristic, ignoring all others. A Lebanese American may be the target of hate speech because the perpetrators reduce him to a Muslim\u2014whether he actually is Muslim or not would be irrelevant. Grouping all Middle Eastern- or Arab-looking people together is a dehumanizing activity that is typical to hate speech.<\/p>\n

    Incidents of hate speech and hate crimes have increased over the past fifteen years. Hate crimes, in particular, have gotten more attention due to the passage of more laws against hate crimes and the increased amount of tracking by various levels of law enforcement. The Internet has also made it easier for hate groups to organize and spread their hateful messages. As these changes have taken place over the past fifteen years, there has been much discussion about hate speech and its legal and constitutional implications. While hate crimes resulting in damage to a person or property are regularly prosecuted, it is sometimes argued that hate speech that doesn\u2019t result in such damage is protected under the US Constitution\u2019s First Amendment, which guarantees free speech. Just recently, in 2011, the Supreme Court found in the Snyder v. Phelps<\/em> case that speech and actions of the members of the Westboro Baptist Church, who regularly protest the funerals of American soldiers with signs reading things like \u201cThank God for Dead Soldiers\u201d and \u201cFag Sin = 9\/11,\u201d were protected and not criminal. Chief Justice Roberts wrote in the decision, \u201cWe cannot react to [the Snyder family\u2019s] pain by punishing the speaker. As a nation we have chosen a different course\u2014to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate\u201d (Exploring Constitutional Conflicts, 2012).<\/p>\n

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    1. Do you think the First Amendment of the Constitution, guaranteeing free speech to US citizens, should protect hate speech? Why or why not?<\/li>\n
    2. Visit the Southern Poverty Law Center\u2019s \u201cHate Map\u201d (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2012) (http:\/\/www.splcenter.org\/get-informed\/hate-map) to see what hate groups they have identified in your state. Are you surprised by the number\/nature of the groups listed in your state? Briefly describe a group that you didn\u2019t know about and identify the target of its hate and the reasons it gives for its hate speech.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n
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      Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n