{"id":264,"date":"2019-07-14T16:18:03","date_gmt":"2019-07-14T16:18:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/?post_type=chapter&p=264"},"modified":"2019-11-26T21:09:17","modified_gmt":"2019-11-26T21:09:17","slug":"2-2-instructional-strategies","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/chapter\/2-2-instructional-strategies\/","title":{"raw":"2.2 Instructional Strategies","rendered":"2.2 Instructional Strategies"},"content":{"raw":"
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Direct Instruction<\/h2>\r\nIn general usage, the term direct instruction refers to (1) instructional approaches that are structured, sequenced, and led by teachers, and\/or (2) the presentation of academic content to students by teachers, such as in a lecture or demonstration. In other words, teachers are \u201cdirecting\u201d the instructional process or instruction is being \u201cdirected\u201d at students.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n\r\nThe basic techniques of direct instruction not only extend beyond lecturing, presenting, or demonstrating, but many\u00a0are considered to be\u00a0foundational to effective teaching. For example:\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
\r\n
    \r\n \t
  • Establishing learning objectives for lessons, activities, and projects, and then making sure that students\u00a0understand\u00a0the goals.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Purposefully organizing and sequencing a series of lessons, projects, and assignments that move students toward\u00a0understanding\u00a0and the achievement of specific academic goals.<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Reviewing instructions for an activity or modeling a process\u2014such as a scientific experiment\u2014so that students know what they are expected to do.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n
    \r\n
      \r\n \t
    • Providing students with clear explanations, descriptions, and illustrations of the knowledge and skills being taught.<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Asking questions to make sure\u00a0of student understanding after a lesson.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nAs seen in Figure Two, teachers rarely use either direct instruction or some other teaching approach\u2014in practice, diverse strategies are frequently blended together. For these reasons, negative perceptions of direct instruction likely result more from a widespread overreliance on the approach, and from the tendency to view it as an either\/or option, rather than from its inherent value to the instructional process\u00a0(Carnine,\u00a0Silbert,\u00a0Kameenui, & Tarver, 1997).\r\n\r\n\"Introduction\/\r\n

      Drill and Practice<\/h2>\r\n\"\"The drill and practice instructional strategy refers to small tasks, such as the memorization of spelling and vocabulary words, or the practicing of the multiplication tables repeatedly.\u00a0 As students, drill and practice instruction was probably a familiar memory throughout your schooling.\u00a0 It is used primarily for students to master fundamental materials through repetition. By today\u2019s educational standards, drill and practice is considered outdated and often deemed ineffective as an instructional strategy.\u00a0 According to Jill Sunday Bartoli, \"Having<\/span><\/span>\u00a0to spend long periods of time on\u00a0<\/span><\/span>repetitive tasks is a sign that learning is not taking place \u2014 that this is not a productive learning situation.\u201d (Bartoli, 1989, p. 292)<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>\r\n

      Lecture<\/h2>\r\n
      \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_269\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"260\"]\"\" Megan Schreder talks to her fifth-grade classroom.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLecture is a convenient instructional strategy. Material can be delivered efficiently since there are no interruptions from students. Lecture still allows the teacher to relate new material to other topics in the course, define and explain key terms, and relate material to students\u2019 interests.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nLecture is an instructional strategy that places students in a passive role. Essentially the lecturer is the expert and the students are having knowledge poured into their brains. The material and presentation are solely the intellectual product of the teacher. Students sit silently at desks that face the lecturer.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nOften lecture topics are not remembered well because retrieval pathways to memory have not been established by students actively participating in the instruction. Students have not taken the presented material and created their own interpreted meaning. The lecturer usually does not know if students understand the topic because there is no feedback from students\u00a0(Lujan, H. & DiCarlo, S, 2006).\r\n

      Question and Answer<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_270\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]\"\" Megan Schreder asks her students questions during a Q&A session with her class.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe technique of question and answer allows the application of knowledge by students and offers a more reflective response.\u00a0 By asking questions, teachers are inviting brief responses from students, which incorporate their prior knowledge and some interpretation of that knowledge. This allows indications of whether students were listening and understand the material being presented.\u00a0 Questions serve both to motivate students to listen and to assess how much and how well they know the material. Incorporating this instructional approach allows both the teacher to ask students questions and students to ask the teacher questions, fostering a better understanding of th<\/span><\/span>e\u00a0<\/span><\/span>lesson\u00a0<\/span><\/span>(<\/span><\/span>Paul & Elder, 2007).\u00a0<\/span><\/span>\u00a0<\/span>\r\n

      Discussion<\/h2>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nIn this instructional strategy, the role of the teacher shifts to leading an exchange of ideas about a specific topic. The teacher is no longer the sole provider of the content as students gain a voice for their ideas and the research they have conducted. At times, the teacher may assign students individual concepts that they have to speak about during the discussion. Some control of what course the discussion takes devolves to students.\u00a0All of\u00a0the content planned for the lesson might not be discussed. In fact, after reflecting on the day\u2019s discussion a teacher might have to begin the next day\u2019s discussion on important content that had been overlooked or squeezed out of the lesson.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nTeachers need to develop strategies so that the voices of all students are heard. In addition, for effective class discussions students need to listen to what their classmates are saying so the points made during the dialogue allow students to make sense of the new ideas. As the discussion takes place, time should be taken for the teacher or better yet, a student to summarize the important points\u00a0(Brookfield &\u00a0Preskill, 2012).\r\n
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      Mental modeling<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nWhen a person perceives how something works in the real world and then formalizes that thought process a mental model is created.\u00a0Mental modeling is a student-centered pedagogical strategy that helps\u00a0students to\u00a0solve problems or make decisions. For example, a mathematics teacher verbally\u00a0modeling\u00a0the thought process\u00a0she is using\u00a0while solving a problem in front of the class\u00a0is using mental modeling.\u00a0When teachers model the process\u00a0of thinking or doing,\u00a0the strategy of mental modeling becomes clearer to students. Students\u00a0may then\u00a0explain their own mental models to learn the strategy and improve their use of it.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nMental modeling often starts with a question, for example:\u00a0why does lake effect snow occur? \u201cWhat if\u201d questions are also good starting points, for example: What if gravity ceased entirely?\u00a0Strategies\u00a0used by\u00a0teachers and\u00a0students\u00a0engaged in mental modeling\u00a0include\u00a0observation, asking questions, as well as\u00a0location and analysis\u00a0of information. The level of cognitive load in mental modeling is high making it a strategy that should be employed often.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nTeachers are encouraged to help students select the right mental model and help students select relevant information to develop their model. Teachers\u00a0should\u00a0create or find problems, case studies, lab activities, and projects at the appropriate grade level\u00a0for their students. For students to have success they need to\u00a0possess\u00a0the appropriate background knowledge\u00a0and supports\u00a0to develop an accurate mental model.\u00a0Often students encounter more success when they focus on the process instead of the outcome\u00a0(Hestenes, D, 2010).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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      Inquiry<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\n\"\"\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nWhen students investigate to answer a question\u00a0about a\u00a0particular topic, they are using inquiry or inquiry-based learning.\u00a0When teachers use inquiry-based learning, students or teachers may identify questions, however in any case questions posed\u00a0should be open ended.\u00a0Inquiry learning may be experienced individually; but it is beneficial when students work with other students. Differing perspectives and varied resources are\u00a0important\u00a0to\u00a0inquiry-based projects.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nProviding responses to questions such as\u00a0\u201cWhy is the sky blue?\u201d\u00a0demands high-order\u00a0thinking\u00a0skills\u00a0from both\u00a0the\u00a0student and\u00a0the\u00a0teacher.\u00a0Allowing students to explore a broad topic, and to choose questions in which they are invested creates the best environment for successful inquiry-based projects. Students\u00a0benefit from learning and negotiating\u00a0through group\u00a0investigation\u00a0in order\u00a0to answer a question.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n\r\nTeachers who wish to engage in inquiry-based learning set the stage for this process in three ways:\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n
        \r\n \t
      1. Assess students to determine their knowledge of the topic, and lay groundwork when that knowledge does not exist.<\/li>\r\n \t
      2. Match the scope of the inquiry question to the\u00a0learning level\u00a0of students.<\/li>\r\n \t
      3. Provide resources and\/or provide internet search strategies for locating credible resources that will inform the inquiry.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        <\/div>\r\n
        <\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nThe teacher\u2019s role in inquiry-based learning is one of mentor and advisor. Students may struggle through problems; however, if the struggle occurs at a level that students may be successful, this struggle is worthwhile. The teacher\u2019s most difficult role, in this case, is to resist answering questions that would inform the inquiry and therefore negate the process for the student!\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nInquiry based learning requires time and patience;\u00a0however\u00a0this teaching strategy lays groundwork for real-world learning in which students will engage throughout their lives (Sharples, Collins,\u00a0Fei\u00dft,\u00a0Gaved, Mulholland, Paxton, & Wright, 2011).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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        Discovery Learning<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\n\u201cDiscovery learning is a type of learning where learners construct their own knowledge by experimenting with a domain and inferring rules from the results of these experiments\u201d (Van\u00a0Joolingen,\u00a02000, p.385).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nIn today\u2019s educational realm, discovery learning is also called problem-based learning or experiential learning. Students\u00a0participate through a hands-on approach and learning is interactive. Through discovery learning students are encouraged to explore with little guidance from the instructor. Discovery learning is based on the beliefs of Piaget\u00a0(\u00dcltan\u0131r,\u00a02012), in which students\u00a0are provided with a topic, and from that point students\u00a0choose how they are going to learn, discover new information,\u00a0synthesize the information\u00a0and do so without correction from the teacher.\u00a0The teacher does feed back to the student, as do the other members of the class, once the project is complete.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nIt is important that teachers create specific goals and\u00a0guide students through discovery learning\u00a0using pre-determined structures, for example, groupwork, fieldwork, or interaction with others. Unless this is the case,\u00a0students may have too much freedom\u00a0resulting in a lack of rigor within the method.\u00a0However, Mayer (2004) states,\u00a0\"In\u00a0many ways, guided discovery appears to offer the best method for promoting constructivist learning. The challenge of teaching by guided discovery is to know how much and what kind of guidance to provide and to know how to specify the desired outcome of learning.\u201d (p.14)\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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        Group work<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nIn group work, students are\u00a0assigned\u00a0one or more\u00a0partners\u00a0to collaborate\u00a0with\u00a0on ideas in a strategy like think-pair-share\u00a0or problem solving. Before students begin working,\u00a0the teacher explains the objectives, expectations, and details of the activity or project. This explanation is meant to ensure all group members understand the goal of the group. As the group works together it is expected that all members teach and learn from each other. At the end of the group activity the teacher may debrief with groups or may provide a grade on a group artifact.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nStudents often need to be oriented on how to work effectively with their peers. Listening to group members\u2019 ideas and not attaching self-worth to proposed ideas go a long way toward reaching the goals of the activity. Compromise is a skill that requires practice to be effective.\u00a0 Alignment of group activities\u00a0with the Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)\u00a0Benchmarks\u00a0(New York State, 2018)\u00a0provides a\u00a0well-defined\u00a0way to identify and\u00a0advance\u00a0the skills students need to be effective group members.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
        \r\n\r\nWhen engaging students in groupwork, teachers should circulate to monitor the groups\u2019 progress toward accomplishing the objectives of the lesson. Asking groups what they are discussing and why that is important to the topic assists in reinforcing the idea that the group activity is educational. As teachers see group behavior that is not on-task, the teacher should not hesitate to address this with the group. This reinforces to all groups that students are individually accountable for their behavior in the group. They are not \u201clost in a crowd\u201d. (Blatchford,\u00a0Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
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        \n

        Direct Instruction<\/h2>\n

        In general usage, the term direct instruction refers to (1) instructional approaches that are structured, sequenced, and led by teachers, and\/or (2) the presentation of academic content to students by teachers, such as in a lecture or demonstration. In other words, teachers are \u201cdirecting\u201d the instructional process or instruction is being \u201cdirected\u201d at students.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        The basic techniques of direct instruction not only extend beyond lecturing, presenting, or demonstrating, but many\u00a0are considered to be\u00a0foundational to effective teaching. For example:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n