{"id":350,"date":"2019-07-30T14:32:59","date_gmt":"2019-07-30T14:32:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=350"},"modified":"2019-08-09T14:26:34","modified_gmt":"2019-08-09T14:26:34","slug":"8-1-history-of-american-education","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/chapter\/8-1-history-of-american-education\/","title":{"raw":"8.1 History of American Education","rendered":"8.1 History of American Education"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify important points during the timeline of American Education<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how past events continue to affect current education and educational policy.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Locate and explain, by referencing examples in a Nation at Risk, the three competing goals of public education: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the Nation at Risk commission\u2019s recommendations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify two recommendations that affect current educational policies.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_349\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"249\"]<img class=\"wp-image-349 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30142847\/Portrait_of_Noah_Webster-249x300.jpg\" alt=\"Portrait of Noah Webster\" width=\"249\" height=\"300\" \/> Portrait of Noah Webster[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn this chapter, by studying the history of education in America, a better understanding of what currently exists in the educational landscape and why can be achieved. Important innovations have occurred throughout the history of education. In contrast, not every policy or strategy resulted in better education. In the beginning, education was not very widespread and definitely not available to all children.\r\n\r\nThomas Jefferson (1779) had a radical idea that every child should receive an education at the public\u2019s expense. The education Jefferson proposed was limited in scope compared with the amount of time spent by a student currently. One of the needs in a democratic society required the ability to read and understand what was read. Jefferson\u2019s efforts met with stiff resistance while all efforts to obtain legislative approval failed.\r\n\r\nAfter the Revolution, America needed to separate itself from Britain. Noah Webster called for the elimination of British texts. He wrote the popular Blue Back Speller that Americanized the spelling of many words. Other authors began writing texts that promoted national ideals. Education was being used to make America a unique country.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_352\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"214\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-352\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30143619\/Horace_Mann_-_Daguerreotype_by_Southworth__Hawes_c1850-214x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"214\" height=\"300\" \/> Daguerreotype of Horace Mann[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">In the early 1800s Horace Mann began the make-over of the Massachusetts school system as the state superintendent of education. Mann began visiting schools, making reports, and publicly arguing for a free education for all children. In addition, Mann argued for teacher preparation and standardized equipment. His ideas resulted in common schools that were free, had standard curriculums, were funded by taxes, and gave some local control back to the state. Shortly after Mann\u2019s death<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">he was recognized as a leader in public education<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">Massachusetts<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">\u00a0passed public, tax supported, compulsory education.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW17610379 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\nSlavery had been abolished in Massachusetts early, but African American children were mistreated and harassed in integrated schools leading to segregated schools. A concern about the growth of prejudice generated by segregation in schools and a resentment among African American parents over supporting schools their children could not attend led to unsuccessful petitions to close segregated schools. Roberts v City of Boston (1850) argued before the state supreme court failed because the court cited provisions had been made for the African American children to have a school even though it was segregated. In 1855 the state legislature abolished segregation in schools.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\nSince the beginning of American education, the Protestant faith was a dominant influence with philosophy, holidays, and even prayers. Besides wide spread prejudice against Catholics, they did not want their children exposed to religious beliefs not supported at home. Well attended Great School Debates argued by Cardinal Hughes against a multitude\u00a0of Protestant ministers occurred. Hughes wanted public funds to start Catholic schools, but the NY City School Board held the line on funding only public schools. The Catholic school system started by breaking away from the public-school system.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\nAt the end of the Civil War, slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. Unfortunately, although African Americans were no longer slaves, states of the former Confederacy actively fought integration. Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877 signaling the beginning of the Jim Crow era and the erosion of black civil rights and liberties. By 1896, states had been using the doctrine of separate but equal to justify segregation. Facilities and equipment were vastly inferior for African American students,\u00a0not equal. Plessy v. Ferguson had worked its way up to the US Supreme Court. Plessy argued Louisiana's law of separate but equal violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments and that segregation labeled African American people as inferior. The Supreme Court ruled that separate but equal did not violate the Constitution.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_354\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"260\"]<img class=\"wp-image-354 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30151422\/11996v.original.2e16d0ba.fill-260x200-c100.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"260\" height=\"200\" \/> Brown County's Sod High School[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs more and more people migrated to the West for opportunity, state constitutions touted free public educations. So many schools were opening\u00a0that\u00a0a new source of teachers was needed. Katherine Beecher established teaching as a female moral calling. Beecher\u2019s stand allowed females to journey into the vast expanse of the western plains. With the influx of female teachers,\u00a0care came into the American classrooms. Students also received moral education through the very popular McGuffey\u2019s Readers.\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\nBy 1890, America\u2019s public schools were educating more students than any other nation on Earth. Unfortunately, many minorities were segregated from public education including, African Americans,\u00a0Native Americans,\u00a0and Mexicans. In 1896, John Dewey open his first progressive laboratory in Massachusetts. The progressive philosophy practiced hands-on learning that led to problem solving and critical thinking. Progressivism was popular until World War II.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\nIn 1954, a unanimous decision crafted by Chief Justice Earl Warren in the case of Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education heard before the US Supreme Court ended segregation in public schools. Cases from Kansas, Delaware, Washington, DC, South Carolina, and Virginia were combined. In Topeka, each of the students who tried to enroll in a neighborhood school were denied admission. Thurgood Marshall, a future Supreme Court Justice, was one of the lawyers who argued the case for the NAACP. The justices stated that separate facilities are inherently unequal,\u00a0and that education is a right. Not much changed, the southern states resisted integration, and African American faculty of students who were integrated lost their jobs. As nine students, the Little Rock Nine, tried to integrate a white high school the Alabama National Guard under the direction of the governor prevented the students from entering the school. President Eisenhower federalized the national guard and sent federal troops to enforce the integration in 1959. Finally, when the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 stipulating that noncompliance in integration would result in the loss of federal funds,\u00a0states complied with the Court\u2019s order. By 1972, 91% of students attended integrated schools.\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\" wp-image-356 aligncenter\" style=\"font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30173136\/Civilrights-298x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"351\" height=\"353\" \/>\r\n\r\nIn 1958, the Russians launched Sputnik, the world\u2019s first satellite. America found itself behind in the resulting space race. The National Defense Education Act called for finding and educating more talent in science, mathematics, foreign languages, and technology. Monetary support was given to states and students. Vocational education received funding, also. A call for experimentation and research in media to improve the presentation of academic subject matter with training given to teachers.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\nIn 1965, Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act to provide all students a fair and equal opportunity to achieve an exceptional education. Part of the act\u2019s goal was to close the achievement gap between poor students and all other students. The three major titles of the act are: Title I \u2013 Financial Assistance for the Education of Low-Income Families; Title VI \u2013 Aid to Handicapped Children; and Title VII \u2013 Bilingual Education Programs, which\u00a0established the federal fingerprints on education. Congress reauthorized the act in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). A major provision added testing of all students in grades 3 through 8 in reading and mathematics with each state setting their own standards. Wide spread criticism caused Congress to reauthorize the act as\u00a0the Every\u00a0Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015. Although the testing continued,\u00a0accountability was transferred to the states. States submit goals and standards with a plan on how they will be achieved. States also determine the consequences for low-achieving schools (bottom 10%). In addition, all schools are to offer college and career counseling and Advanced Placement courses to all students.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-380 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/01202126\/Picture1-300x217.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"217\" \/>\r\n\r\nIn 1968, Mexican American students from three Los Angelis East Side high schools (Garfield, Roosevelt, and Lincoln) walked out over high dropout rates, lack of college prep courses, rundown schools, and a low number of Mexican American teachers. Student walkouts were a part of a larger scope of activism in the Mexican American community that grew out of treatment as second-class citizens. The walkouts lasted more than a week with student speeches and clashes with the police culminating with students presenting demands at a board of education meeting. The board of education granted the request for smaller class sizes and more bilingual counselors and teachers immediately. A grand jury indicted the activists, the \u201cEastside 13,\u201d but an appeals court\u00a0vacated\u00a0the indictment in 1970.\u00a0Actions taken by the\u00a0students cultivated a sense of possibility in the community.\r\n\r\nBy 1971, Detroit and its suburbs presented areas of entrenched segregation as a result of white flight, real estate policies, neighborhood associations, and town policies. A judge approved the Detroit metro plan as a remedy, but the plan failed to garner support from most of the groups involved. In fact, the plan failed to reverse segregation and did not raise the quality of education. When the Supreme Court struck down busing as a means of achieving integration in the Milliken v Bradley case, integration was deemed the responsibility of the city. Detroit is still searching for a solution to this thorny issue.\r\n\r\nIn 1972, Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments Act that states: \"No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance\" (US Congress). Title IX corrected an oversight by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which did not prohibit sex discrimination against persons employed at educational institutions. If a school discriminated on the basis of gender, federal funds would be withheld from the school. Enforcement fell to lawsuits brought by the federal government. The act resulted in the creation of public-school sports teams for girls.\r\n\r\nLau v. Nicols (1974) was decided unanimously by the Supreme Court. Supplemental language instruction was denied to most Chinese students who were integrated into the San Francisco public school system; therefore, these students did not receive a meaningful education. In fact, few students throughout the country received supplemental English instruction since funding was limited and participation was voluntary. The Court stated that supplemental instruction was required because the school district received federal funds. The Court argued that a \u201csink or swim\u201d policy for learning was prohibited. Subsequent decisions required plaintiffs to provide proof of intentional discrimination which weakened the Lau finding.\r\n\r\nIn 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was passed by Congress that required \u201cpublic schools receiving federal funds to provide equal education to students with physical and mental disabilities\u201d (US Congress). To ensure that the education provided students with disabilities closely aligned with the education of non-disabled students, students with disabilities were evaluated and an educational plan with parent input was created. Schools were required to provide procedures for parents to dispute decisions with judicial review as a last resort. The act required disabled students to be placed in the least restrictive environment with the greatest opportunity to interact with non-disabled students. Only when the nature and severity of the disability prevented education in a regular classroom were separate schools allowed.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify important points during the timeline of American Education<\/li>\n<li>Explain how past events continue to affect current education and educational policy.<\/li>\n<li>Locate and explain, by referencing examples in a Nation at Risk, the three competing goals of public education: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility.<\/li>\n<li>Explain the Nation at Risk commission\u2019s recommendations.<\/li>\n<li>Identify two recommendations that affect current educational policies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_349\" style=\"width: 259px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-349\" class=\"wp-image-349 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30142847\/Portrait_of_Noah_Webster-249x300.jpg\" alt=\"Portrait of Noah Webster\" width=\"249\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-349\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Noah Webster<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In this chapter, by studying the history of education in America, a better understanding of what currently exists in the educational landscape and why can be achieved. Important innovations have occurred throughout the history of education. In contrast, not every policy or strategy resulted in better education. In the beginning, education was not very widespread and definitely not available to all children.<\/p>\n<p>Thomas Jefferson (1779) had a radical idea that every child should receive an education at the public\u2019s expense. The education Jefferson proposed was limited in scope compared with the amount of time spent by a student currently. One of the needs in a democratic society required the ability to read and understand what was read. Jefferson\u2019s efforts met with stiff resistance while all efforts to obtain legislative approval failed.<\/p>\n<p>After the Revolution, America needed to separate itself from Britain. Noah Webster called for the elimination of British texts. He wrote the popular Blue Back Speller that Americanized the spelling of many words. Other authors began writing texts that promoted national ideals. Education was being used to make America a unique country.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_352\" style=\"width: 224px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-352\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-352\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30143619\/Horace_Mann_-_Daguerreotype_by_Southworth__Hawes_c1850-214x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"214\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-352\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Daguerreotype of Horace Mann<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">In the early 1800s Horace Mann began the make-over of the Massachusetts school system as the state superintendent of education. Mann began visiting schools, making reports, and publicly arguing for a free education for all children. In addition, Mann argued for teacher preparation and standardized equipment. His ideas resulted in common schools that were free, had standard curriculums, were funded by taxes, and gave some local control back to the state. Shortly after Mann\u2019s death<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">,\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">he was recognized as a leader in public education<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">\u00a0and\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">Massachusetts<\/span><\/span><span class=\"TextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\" lang=\"EN-US\" xml:lang=\"EN-US\"><span class=\"NormalTextRun SCXW17610379 BCX0\">\u00a0passed public, tax supported, compulsory education.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"EOP SCXW17610379 BCX0\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p>Slavery had been abolished in Massachusetts early, but African American children were mistreated and harassed in integrated schools leading to segregated schools. A concern about the growth of prejudice generated by segregation in schools and a resentment among African American parents over supporting schools their children could not attend led to unsuccessful petitions to close segregated schools. Roberts v City of Boston (1850) argued before the state supreme court failed because the court cited provisions had been made for the African American children to have a school even though it was segregated. In 1855 the state legislature abolished segregation in schools.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p>Since the beginning of American education, the Protestant faith was a dominant influence with philosophy, holidays, and even prayers. Besides wide spread prejudice against Catholics, they did not want their children exposed to religious beliefs not supported at home. Well attended Great School Debates argued by Cardinal Hughes against a multitude\u00a0of Protestant ministers occurred. Hughes wanted public funds to start Catholic schools, but the NY City School Board held the line on funding only public schools. The Catholic school system started by breaking away from the public-school system.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p>At the end of the Civil War, slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. Unfortunately, although African Americans were no longer slaves, states of the former Confederacy actively fought integration. Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877 signaling the beginning of the Jim Crow era and the erosion of black civil rights and liberties. By 1896, states had been using the doctrine of separate but equal to justify segregation. Facilities and equipment were vastly inferior for African American students,\u00a0not equal. Plessy v. Ferguson had worked its way up to the US Supreme Court. Plessy argued Louisiana&#8217;s law of separate but equal violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments and that segregation labeled African American people as inferior. The Supreme Court ruled that separate but equal did not violate the Constitution.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<div id=\"attachment_354\" style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-354\" class=\"wp-image-354 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30151422\/11996v.original.2e16d0ba.fill-260x200-c100.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"260\" height=\"200\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-354\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brown County&#8217;s Sod High School<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As more and more people migrated to the West for opportunity, state constitutions touted free public educations. So many schools were opening\u00a0that\u00a0a new source of teachers was needed. Katherine Beecher established teaching as a female moral calling. Beecher\u2019s stand allowed females to journey into the vast expanse of the western plains. With the influx of female teachers,\u00a0care came into the American classrooms. Students also received moral education through the very popular McGuffey\u2019s Readers.<\/p>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p>By 1890, America\u2019s public schools were educating more students than any other nation on Earth. Unfortunately, many minorities were segregated from public education including, African Americans,\u00a0Native Americans,\u00a0and Mexicans. In 1896, John Dewey open his first progressive laboratory in Massachusetts. The progressive philosophy practiced hands-on learning that led to problem solving and critical thinking. Progressivism was popular until World War II.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p>In 1954, a unanimous decision crafted by Chief Justice Earl Warren in the case of Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education heard before the US Supreme Court ended segregation in public schools. Cases from Kansas, Delaware, Washington, DC, South Carolina, and Virginia were combined. In Topeka, each of the students who tried to enroll in a neighborhood school were denied admission. Thurgood Marshall, a future Supreme Court Justice, was one of the lawyers who argued the case for the NAACP. The justices stated that separate facilities are inherently unequal,\u00a0and that education is a right. Not much changed, the southern states resisted integration, and African American faculty of students who were integrated lost their jobs. As nine students, the Little Rock Nine, tried to integrate a white high school the Alabama National Guard under the direction of the governor prevented the students from entering the school. President Eisenhower federalized the national guard and sent federal troops to enforce the integration in 1959. Finally, when the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 stipulating that noncompliance in integration would result in the loss of federal funds,\u00a0states complied with the Court\u2019s order. By 1972, 91% of students attended integrated schools.<\/p>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-356 aligncenter\" style=\"font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/30173136\/Civilrights-298x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"351\" height=\"353\" \/><\/p>\n<p>In 1958, the Russians launched Sputnik, the world\u2019s first satellite. America found itself behind in the resulting space race. The National Defense Education Act called for finding and educating more talent in science, mathematics, foreign languages, and technology. Monetary support was given to states and students. Vocational education received funding, also. A call for experimentation and research in media to improve the presentation of academic subject matter with training given to teachers.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p>In 1965, Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act to provide all students a fair and equal opportunity to achieve an exceptional education. Part of the act\u2019s goal was to close the achievement gap between poor students and all other students. The three major titles of the act are: Title I \u2013 Financial Assistance for the Education of Low-Income Families; Title VI \u2013 Aid to Handicapped Children; and Title VII \u2013 Bilingual Education Programs, which\u00a0established the federal fingerprints on education. Congress reauthorized the act in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). A major provision added testing of all students in grades 3 through 8 in reading and mathematics with each state setting their own standards. Wide spread criticism caused Congress to reauthorize the act as\u00a0the Every\u00a0Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015. Although the testing continued,\u00a0accountability was transferred to the states. States submit goals and standards with a plan on how they will be achieved. States also determine the consequences for low-achieving schools (bottom 10%). In addition, all schools are to offer college and career counseling and Advanced Placement courses to all students.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"font-weight: 400\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-380 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3347\/2019\/07\/01202126\/Picture1-300x217.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"217\" \/><\/p>\n<p>In 1968, Mexican American students from three Los Angelis East Side high schools (Garfield, Roosevelt, and Lincoln) walked out over high dropout rates, lack of college prep courses, rundown schools, and a low number of Mexican American teachers. Student walkouts were a part of a larger scope of activism in the Mexican American community that grew out of treatment as second-class citizens. The walkouts lasted more than a week with student speeches and clashes with the police culminating with students presenting demands at a board of education meeting. The board of education granted the request for smaller class sizes and more bilingual counselors and teachers immediately. A grand jury indicted the activists, the \u201cEastside 13,\u201d but an appeals court\u00a0vacated\u00a0the indictment in 1970.\u00a0Actions taken by the\u00a0students cultivated a sense of possibility in the community.<\/p>\n<p>By 1971, Detroit and its suburbs presented areas of entrenched segregation as a result of white flight, real estate policies, neighborhood associations, and town policies. A judge approved the Detroit metro plan as a remedy, but the plan failed to garner support from most of the groups involved. In fact, the plan failed to reverse segregation and did not raise the quality of education. When the Supreme Court struck down busing as a means of achieving integration in the Milliken v Bradley case, integration was deemed the responsibility of the city. Detroit is still searching for a solution to this thorny issue.<\/p>\n<p>In 1972, Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments Act that states: &#8220;No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance&#8221; (US Congress). Title IX corrected an oversight by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which did not prohibit sex discrimination against persons employed at educational institutions. If a school discriminated on the basis of gender, federal funds would be withheld from the school. Enforcement fell to lawsuits brought by the federal government. The act resulted in the creation of public-school sports teams for girls.<\/p>\n<p>Lau v. Nicols (1974) was decided unanimously by the Supreme Court. Supplemental language instruction was denied to most Chinese students who were integrated into the San Francisco public school system; therefore, these students did not receive a meaningful education. In fact, few students throughout the country received supplemental English instruction since funding was limited and participation was voluntary. The Court stated that supplemental instruction was required because the school district received federal funds. The Court argued that a \u201csink or swim\u201d policy for learning was prohibited. Subsequent decisions required plaintiffs to provide proof of intentional discrimination which weakened the Lau finding.<\/p>\n<p>In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was passed by Congress that required \u201cpublic schools receiving federal funds to provide equal education to students with physical and mental disabilities\u201d (US Congress). To ensure that the education provided students with disabilities closely aligned with the education of non-disabled students, students with disabilities were evaluated and an educational plan with parent input was created. Schools were required to provide procedures for parents to dispute decisions with judicial review as a last resort. The act required disabled students to be placed in the least restrictive environment with the greatest opportunity to interact with non-disabled students. Only when the nature and severity of the disability prevented education in a regular classroom were separate schools allowed.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-350\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Foundations of Education. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: SUNY Oneonta Education Department. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Portrait of Noah Webster. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Painted by Samuel Finley Breese Morse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Portrait_of_Noah_Webster.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Portrait_of_Noah_Webster.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":85404,"menu_order":11,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Portrait of Noah Webster\",\"author\":\"Painted by Samuel Finley Breese Morse\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Portrait_of_Noah_Webster.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Foundations of Education\",\"author\":\"SUNY Oneonta Education Department\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-350","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":347,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/350","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/85404"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/350\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":537,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/350\/revisions\/537"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/347"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/350\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=350"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=350"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=350"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-oneonta-education106\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=350"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}