{"id":139,"date":"2019-04-24T20:17:19","date_gmt":"2019-04-24T20:17:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/os-amgovernment2e\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=139"},"modified":"2019-08-01T03:37:54","modified_gmt":"2019-08-01T03:37:54","slug":"the-fight-for-womens-rights","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/chapter\/the-fight-for-womens-rights\/","title":{"raw":"The Fight for Women\u2019s Rights","rendered":"The Fight for Women\u2019s Rights"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435611763\" class=\"learning-objectives\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435848601\">By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-id1164435646531\">\r\n \t<li>Describe early efforts to achieve rights for women<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain why the Equal Rights Amendment failed to be ratified<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the ways in which women acquired greater rights in the twentieth century<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze why women continue to experience unequal treatment<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435629403\">Along with African Americans, women of all races and ethnicities have long been discriminated against in the United States, and the women\u2019s rights movement began at the same time as the movement to abolish slavery in the United States. Indeed, the women\u2019s movement came about largely as a result of the difficulties women encountered while trying to abolish slavery. The trailblazing Seneca Falls Convention for women\u2019s rights was held in 1848, a few years before the Civil War. But the abolition and African American civil rights movements largely eclipsed the women\u2019s movement throughout most of the nineteenth century. Women began to campaign actively again in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and another movement for women\u2019s rights began in the 1960s.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435862914\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to learn more about sex discrimination and changes in women's rights through U.S. history.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/1uFh4GTZH-U\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">THE EARLY WOMEN\u2019S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND WOMEN\u2019S SUFFRAGE<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435932969\">At the time of the American Revolution, women had few rights. Although single women were allowed to own property, married women were not. When women married, their separate legal identities were erased under the legal principle of <strong>coverture<\/strong>. Not only did women adopt their husbands\u2019 names, but all personal property they owned legally became their husbands\u2019 property. Husbands could not sell their wives\u2019 real property\u2014such as land or in some states slaves\u2014without their permission, but they were allowed to manage it and retain the profits. If women worked outside the home, their husbands were entitled to their wages.[footnote]Mary Beth Norton. 1980. Liberty\u2019s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750\u20131800. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 46.[\/footnote] So long as a man provided food, clothing, and shelter for his wife, she was not legally allowed to leave him. Divorce was difficult and in some places impossible to obtain.[footnote]Ibid., 47.[\/footnote] Higher education for women was not available, and women were barred from professional positions in medicine, law, and ministry.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435558941\">Following the Revolution, women\u2019s conditions did not improve. Women were not granted the right to vote by any of the states except New Jersey, which at first allowed all taxpaying property owners to vote. However, in 1807, the law changed to limit the vote to men.[footnote]Jan Ellen Lewis. 2011. \"Rethinking Women\u2019s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776\u20131807,\" Rutgers Law Review 63, No. 3, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rutgerslawreview.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/archive\/vol63\/Issue3\/Lewis.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.rutgerslawreview.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/archive\/vol63\/Issue3\/Lewis.pdf<\/a>.[\/footnote] Changes in property laws actually hurt women by making it easier for their husbands to sell their real property without their consent.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435731841\">Although women had few rights, they nevertheless played an important role in transforming American society. This was especially true in the 1830s and 1840s, a time when numerous social reform movements swept across the United States. Many women were active in these causes, especially the abolition movement and the temperance movement, which tried to end the excessive consumption of liquor. They often found they were hindered in their efforts, however, either by the law or by widely held beliefs that they were weak, silly creatures who should leave important issues to men.[footnote]Keyssar, 174.[\/footnote] One of the leaders of the early women\u2019s movement, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was shocked and angered when she sought to attend an 1840 antislavery meeting in London, only to learn that women would not be allowed to participate and had to sit apart from the men. At this convention, she made the acquaintance of another American female abolitionist, Lucretia Mott, who was also appalled by the male reformers\u2019 treatment of women.[footnote]Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 1993. Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, 1815\u20131897. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 148.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_02_StantonMot\"><figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"822\"]<img class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201707\/OSC_AmGov_05_02_StantonMot.jpg\" alt=\"Image A is of Elizabeth Cady Stanton with her arms around two children who are seated on her lap. Image B is of Lucretia Mott standing with arms crossed.\" width=\"822\" height=\"493\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Elizabeth Cady Stanton (a) and Lucretia Mott (b) both emerged from the abolitionist movement as strong advocates of women\u2019s rights.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435941325\">In 1848, Stanton and Mott called for a women\u2019s rights convention, the first ever held specifically to address the subject, at Seneca Falls, New York. At the Seneca Falls Convention, Stanton wrote the Declaration of Sentiments, which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed women were equal to men and deserved the same rights. Among the rights Stanton wished to see granted to women was suffrage, the right to vote. When called upon to sign the Declaration, many of the delegates feared that if women demanded the right to vote, the movement would be considered too radical and its members would become a laughingstock. The Declaration passed, but the resolution demanding suffrage was the only one that did not pass unanimously.[footnote]Elizabeth Cady Stanton et al. 1887. History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 73.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435732146\">Along with other feminists (advocates of women\u2019s equality), such as her friend and colleague Susan B. Anthony, Stanton fought for rights for women besides suffrage, including the right to seek higher education. As a result of their efforts, several states passed laws that allowed married women to retain control of their property and let divorced women keep custody of their children.[footnote]Jean H. Baker. 2005. Sisters: The Lives of America\u2019s Suffragists. New York: Hill and Wang, 109.[\/footnote] Amelia Bloomer, another activist, also campaigned for dress reform, believing women could lead better lives and be more useful to society if they were not restricted by voluminous heavy skirts and tight corsets.<\/p>\r\nThe women\u2019s rights movement attracted many women who, like Stanton and Anthony, were active in either the temperance movement, the abolition movement, or both movements. Sarah and Angelina Grimke, the daughters of a wealthy slaveholding family in South Carolina, became first abolitionists and then women\u2019s rights activists.[footnote]Angelina Grimke. October 2, 1837. \"Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex.\" In Letters to Catherine E. Beecher: In Reply to an Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism. Boston: Knapp, 114\u2013121.[\/footnote] Many of these women realized that their effectiveness as reformers was limited by laws that prohibited married women from signing contracts and by social proscriptions against women addressing male audiences. Without such rights, women found it difficult to rent halls in which to deliver lectures or to hire printers to produce antislavery literature.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"451\"]<img class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201710\/OSC_AmGov_05_03_Parade.jpg\" alt=\"An image of a group of people marching down a street. Several pairs of people are carrying large signs between them. On both sides of the street is a crowd of observers.\" width=\"451\" height=\"281\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> In October 1917, suffragists marched down Fifth Avenue in New York demanding the right to vote. They carried a petition that had been signed by one million women.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435643057\">Following the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, the women\u2019s rights movement fragmented. Stanton and Anthony denounced the Fifteenth Amendment because it granted voting rights only to black men and not to women of any race.[footnote]Keyssar, 178.[\/footnote] The fight for women\u2019s rights did not die, however. In 1869, Stanton and Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), which demanded that the Constitution be amended to grant the right to vote to all women. It also called for more lenient divorce laws and an end to sex discrimination in employment. The less radical Lucy Stone formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) in the same year; AWSA hoped to win the suffrage for women by working on a state-by-state basis instead of seeking to amend the Constitution.[footnote]Keyssar, 184.[\/footnote] Four western states\u2014Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, and Idaho\u2014did extend the right to vote to women in the late nineteenth century, but no other states did.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435650081\">Women were also granted the right to vote on matters involving liquor licenses, in school board elections, and in municipal elections in several states. However, this was often done because of stereotyped beliefs that associated women with moral reform and concern for children, not as a result of a belief in women\u2019s equality. Furthermore, voting in municipal elections was restricted to women who owned property.[footnote]Keyssar, 175, 186\u2013187.[\/footnote] In 1890, the two suffragist groups united to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). To call attention to their cause, members circulated petitions, lobbied politicians, and held parades in which hundreds of women and girls marched through the streets.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435843324\">The more radical National Woman\u2019s Party (NWP), led by Alice Paul, advocated the use of stronger tactics. The NWP held public protests and picketed outside the White House.[footnote]Keyssar, 214.[\/footnote] Demonstrators were often beaten and arrested, and suffragists were subjected to cruel treatment in jail. When some, like Paul, began hunger strikes to call attention to their cause, their jailers force-fed them, an incredibly painful and invasive experience for the women.[footnote]\"Alice Paul,\" <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nwhm.org\/education-resources\/biography\/biographies\/alice-paul\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nwhm.org\/education-resources\/biography\/biographies\/alice-paul\/<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote] Finally, in 1920, the triumphant passage of the Nineteenth Amendment granted all women the right to vote.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_03_NWP\"><figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"739\"]<img class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201712\/OSC_AmGov_05_03_NWP.jpg\" alt=\"An image of several people standing in front of a fence. Some people are holding banners. The banners read \" width=\"739\" height=\"352\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Members of the National Woman\u2019s Party picketed outside the White House six days a week from January 10, 1917, when President Woodrow Wilson took office, until June 4, 1919, when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed by Congress. The protesters wore banners proclaiming the name of the institution of higher learning they attended.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1164435730671\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">CIVIL RIGHTS AND THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435592463\">Just as the passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments did not result in equality for African Americans, the Nineteenth Amendment did not end discrimination against women in education, employment, or other areas of life, which continued to be legal. Although women could vote, they very rarely ran for or held public office. Women continued to be underrepresented in the professions, and relatively few sought advanced degrees. Until the mid-twentieth century, the ideal in U.S. society was typically for women to marry, have children, and become housewives. Those who sought work for pay outside the home were routinely denied jobs because of their sex and, when they did find employment, were paid less than men. Women who wished to remain childless or limit the number of children they had in order to work or attend college found it difficult to do so. In some states it was illegal to sell contraceptive devices, and abortions were largely illegal and difficult for women to obtain.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435685594\">A second women\u2019s rights movement emerged in the 1960s to address these problems. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of sex as well as race, color, national origin, and religion. Nevertheless, women continued to be denied jobs because of their sex and were often sexually harassed at the workplace. In 1966, feminists who were angered by the lack of progress made by women and by the government\u2019s lackluster enforcement of Title VII organized the National Organization for Women (NOW). NOW promoted workplace equality, including equal pay for women, and also called for the greater presence of women in public office, the professions, and graduate and professional degree programs.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435574701\">NOW also declared its support for the <strong>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)<\/strong>, which mandated equal treatment for all regardless of sex. The ERA, written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman, was first proposed to Congress, unsuccessfully, in 1923. It was introduced in every Congress thereafter but did not pass both the House and the Senate until 1972. The amendment was then sent to the states for ratification with a deadline of March 22, 1979. Although many states ratified the amendment in 1972 and 1973, the ERA still lacked sufficient support as the deadline drew near. Opponents, including both women and men, argued that passage would subject women to military conscription and deny them alimony and custody of their children should they divorce.[footnote]Deborah Rhode. 2009. Justice and Gender: Sex Discrimination and the Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 66\u201367.[\/footnote] In 1978, Congress voted to extend the deadline for ratification to June 30, 1982. Even with the extension, however, the amendment failed to receive the support of the required thirty-eight states; by the time the deadline arrived, it had been ratified by only thirty-five, some of those had rescinded their ratifications, and no new state had ratified the ERA during the extension period.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_03_ERA\"><figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"980\"]<img style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201717\/OSC_AmGov_05_03_ERA.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the United States titled \" width=\"980\" height=\"640\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 4.<\/strong> The map shows which states supported the ERA and which did not. The dark blue states ratified the amendment. The amendment was ratified but later rescinded in the light blue states and was ratified in only one branch of the legislature in the yellow states. The ERA was never ratified by the purple states.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435570989\">Although the ERA failed to be ratified, <strong>Title IX<\/strong> of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 passed into law as a federal statute (not as an amendment, as the ERA was meant to be). Title IX applies to all educational institutions that receive federal aid and prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in academic programs, dormitory space, health-care access, and school activities including sports. Thus, if a school receives federal aid, it cannot spend more funds on programs for men than on programs for women.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1164435652210\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">CONTINUING CHALLENGES FOR WOMEN<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435833943\">There is no doubt that women have made great progress since the Seneca Falls Convention. Today, more women than men attend college, and they are more likely than men to graduate.[footnote]Mark Hugo Lopez and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera. 6 March 2014. \"Women\u2019s College Enrollment Gains Leave Men Behind,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/03\/06\/womens-college-enrollment-gains-leave-men-behind\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/03\/06\/womens-college-enrollment-gains-leave-men-behind\/<\/a>; Allie Bidwell, \"Women More Likely to Graduate College, but Still Earn Less Than Men,\" U.S. News &amp; World Report, 31 October 2014.[\/footnote] Women are represented in all the professions, and approximately half of all law and medical school students are women.[footnote]\"A Current Glance at Women in the Law\u2013July 2014,\" American Bar Association, July 2014; \"Medical School Applicants, Enrollment Reach All-Time Highs,\" Association of American Medical Colleges, October 24, 2013.[\/footnote] Women have held Cabinet positions and have been elected to Congress. They have run for president and vice president, and three female justices currently serve on the Supreme Court. Women are also represented in all branches of the military and can serve in combat. As a result of the 1973 Supreme Court decision in <em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Roe v. Wade<\/em><\/em>, women now have legal access to abortion.[footnote]Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435627115\">Nevertheless, women are still underrepresented in some jobs and are less likely to hold executive positions than are men. Many believe the <strong>glass ceiling<\/strong>, an invisible barrier caused by discrimination, prevents women from rising to the highest levels of American organizations, including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious groups. Women earn less money than men for the same work. As of 2014, fully employed women earned seventy-nine cents for every dollar earned by a fully employed man.[footnote]\"Pay Equity and Discrimination,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.iwpr.org\/initiatives\/pay-equity-and-discrimination\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.iwpr.org\/initiatives\/pay-equity-and-discrimination<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote] Women are also more likely to be single parents than are men.[footnote]Gretchen Livingston. 2 July 2013. \"The Rise of Single Fathers,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2013\/07\/02\/the-rise-of-single-fathers\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2013\/07\/02\/the-rise-of-single-fathers\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] As a result, more women live below the poverty line than do men, and, as of 2012, households headed by single women are twice as likely to live below the poverty line than those headed by single men.[footnote]\"Poverty in the U.S.: A Snapshot,\" National Center for Law and Economic Justice, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nclej.org\/poverty-in-the-us.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.nclej.org\/poverty-in-the-us.php<\/a>.[\/footnote] Women remain underrepresented in elective offices. As of January 2019, women held only about 24 percent of seats in Congress and only about 29 percent of seats in state legislatures.[footnote]\"Current Numbers,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/current-numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/current-numbers<\/a> (January 10, 2019).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\nWomen remain subject to sexual harassment in the workplace and are more likely than men to be the victims of domestic violence. Approximately one-third of all women have experienced domestic violence; one in five women is assaulted during her college years.[footnote]\"Statistics,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ncadv.org\/learn\/statistics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.ncadv.org\/learn\/statistics<\/a> (April 10, 2016); \"Statistics About Sexual Violence,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nsvrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.nsvrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote]\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435657972\">Many in the United States continue to call for a ban on abortion, and states have attempted to restrict women\u2019s access to the procedure. For example, many states have required abortion clinics to meet the same standards set for hospitals, such as corridor size and parking lot capacity, despite lack of evidence regarding the benefits of such standards. Abortion clinics, which are smaller than hospitals, often cannot meet such standards. Other restrictions include mandated counseling before the procedure and the need for minors to secure parental permission before obtaining abortion services.[footnote]Heather D. Boonstra and Elizabeth Nash. 2014. \"A Surge of State Abortion Restrictions Puts Providers\u2013and the Women They Serve\u2013in the Crosshairs,\" Guttmacher Policy Review 17, No. 1, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2014\/03\/surge-state-abortion-restrictions-puts-providers-and-women-they-serve-crosshairs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2014\/03\/surge-state-abortion-restrictions-puts-providers-and-women-they-serve-crosshairs<\/a>.[\/footnote]\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Whole Woman\u2019s Health v. Hellerstedt<\/em> (2016) cited the lack of evidence for the benefit of larger clinics and further disallowed two Texas laws that imposed special requirements on doctors in order to perform abortions.[footnote]Whole Woman\u2019s Health v. Hellerstedt, 579 U.S. ___ (2016).[\/footnote] Furthermore, the federal government will not pay for abortions for low-income women except in cases of rape or incest or in situations in which carrying the fetus to term would endanger the life of the mother.[footnote]Heather D. Boonstra. 2013. \"Insurance Coverage of Abortion: Beyond the Exceptions for Life Endangerment, Rape and Incest,\" Guttmacher Policy Review 16, No. 3, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2013\/09\/insurance-coverage-abortion-beyond-exceptions-life-endangerment-rape-and-incest\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2013\/09\/insurance-coverage-abortion-beyond-exceptions-life-endangerment-rape-and-incest<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435551420\">To address these issues, many have called for additional protections for women. These include laws mandating equal pay for equal work. According to the doctrine of <strong>comparable worth<\/strong>, people should be compensated equally for work requiring comparable skills, responsibilities, and effort. Thus, even though women are underrepresented in certain fields, they should receive the same wages as men if performing jobs requiring the same level of accountability, knowledge, skills, and\/or working conditions, even though the specific job may be different.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435921942\">For example, garbage collectors are largely male. The chief job requirements are the ability to drive a sanitation truck and to lift heavy bins and toss their contents into the back of truck. The average wage for a garbage collector is $15.34 an hour.[footnote]\"Garbage Man Salary (United States),\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Garbage_Man\/Hourly_Rate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Garbage_Man\/Hourly_Rate<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote] Daycare workers are largely female, and the average pay is $9.12 an hour.[footnote]\"Child Care\/Day Care Worker Salary (United States),\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Child_Care_%2F_Day_Care_Worker\/Hourly_Rate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Child_Care_%2F_Day_Care_Worker\/Hourly_Rate<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote] However, the work arguably requires more skills and is a more responsible position. Daycare workers must be able to feed, clean, and dress small children; prepare meals for them; entertain them; give them medicine if required; and teach them basic skills. They must be educated in first aid and assume responsibility for the children\u2019s safety. In terms of the skills and physical activity required and the associated level of responsibility of the job, daycare workers should be paid at least as much as garbage collectors and perhaps more. Women\u2019s rights advocates also call for stricter enforcement of laws prohibiting sexual harassment, and for harsher punishment, such as mandatory arrest, for perpetrators of domestic violence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1164435834217\" class=\"insider-perspective\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Harry Burn and the Tennessee General Assembly<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435634835\">In 1918, the proposed Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, extending the right to vote to all adult female citizens of the United States, was passed by both houses of Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Thirty-six votes were needed. Throughout 1918 and 1919, the Amendment dragged through legislature after legislature as pro- and anti-suffrage advocates made their arguments. By the summer of 1920, only one more state had to ratify it before it became law. The Amendment passed through Tennessee\u2019s state Senate and went to its House of Representatives. Arguments were bitter and intense. Pro-suffrage advocates argued that the amendment would reward women for their service to the nation during World War I and that women\u2019s supposedly greater morality would help to clean up politics. Those opposed claimed women would be degraded by entrance into the political arena and that their interests were already represented by their male relatives. On August 18, the amendment was brought for a vote before the House. The vote was closely divided, and it seemed unlikely it would pass. But as a young anti-suffrage representative waited for his vote to be counted, he remembered a note he had received from his mother that day. In it, she urged him, \"Hurrah and vote for suffrage!\" At the last minute, Harry Burn abruptly changed his ballot. The amendment passed the House by one vote, and eight days later, the Nineteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435569851\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">How are women perceived in politics today compared to the 1910s? What were the competing arguments for Harry Burn\u2019s vote?<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1164435635982\" class=\"american government link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>link to learning<\/h3>\r\nThe website for the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.openstax.org\/l\/29womnathispro\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Women\u2019s National History Project<\/a> contains a variety of resources for learning more about the women\u2019s rights movement and women\u2019s history. It features a history of the women\u2019s movement, a \"This Day in Women\u2019s History\" page, and quizzes to test your knowledge.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1164435832702\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435639400\">At the time of the Revolution and for many decades following it, married women had no right to control their own property, vote, or run for public office. Beginning in the 1840s, a women\u2019s movement began among women who were active in the abolition and temperance movements. Although some of their goals, such as achieving property rights for married women, were reached early on, their biggest goal\u2014winning the right to vote\u2014required the 1920 passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. Women secured more rights in the 1960s and 1970s, such as reproductive rights and the right not to be discriminated against in employment or education. Women continue to face many challenges: they are still paid less than men and are underrepresented in executive positions and elected office.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/15818\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/15819\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/15820\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435608626\">\r\n \t<dt>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435608626\">\r\n \t<dt>Comparable Worth<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164435870020\">a doctrine calling for the same pay for workers whose jobs require the same level of education, responsibility, training, or working conditions<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435893618\">\r\n \t<dt>Coverture<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164435895149\">a legal status of married women in which their separate legal identities were erased<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435831896\">\r\n \t<dt>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164435641124\">the proposed amendment to the Constitution that would have prohibited all discrimination based on sex<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435893981\">\r\n \t<dt>Glass Ceiling<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164435833013\">an invisible barrier caused by discrimination that prevents women from rising to the highest levels of an organization\u2014including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious organizations<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435609919\">\r\n \t<dt>Title IX<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164435610825\">the section of the U.S. Education Amendments of 1972 that prohibits discrimination in education on the basis of sex<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div><\/dt>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435611763\" class=\"learning-objectives\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435848601\">By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-id1164435646531\">\n<li>Describe early efforts to achieve rights for women<\/li>\n<li>Explain why the Equal Rights Amendment failed to be ratified<\/li>\n<li>Describe the ways in which women acquired greater rights in the twentieth century<\/li>\n<li>Analyze why women continue to experience unequal treatment<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435629403\">Along with African Americans, women of all races and ethnicities have long been discriminated against in the United States, and the women\u2019s rights movement began at the same time as the movement to abolish slavery in the United States. Indeed, the women\u2019s movement came about largely as a result of the difficulties women encountered while trying to abolish slavery. The trailblazing Seneca Falls Convention for women\u2019s rights was held in 1848, a few years before the Civil War. But the abolition and African American civil rights movements largely eclipsed the women\u2019s movement throughout most of the nineteenth century. Women began to campaign actively again in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and another movement for women\u2019s rights began in the 1960s.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435862914\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to learn more about sex discrimination and changes in women&#8217;s rights through U.S. history.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Sex Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics #30\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/1uFh4GTZH-U?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">THE EARLY WOMEN\u2019S RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND WOMEN\u2019S SUFFRAGE<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435932969\">At the time of the American Revolution, women had few rights. Although single women were allowed to own property, married women were not. When women married, their separate legal identities were erased under the legal principle of <strong>coverture<\/strong>. Not only did women adopt their husbands\u2019 names, but all personal property they owned legally became their husbands\u2019 property. Husbands could not sell their wives\u2019 real property\u2014such as land or in some states slaves\u2014without their permission, but they were allowed to manage it and retain the profits. If women worked outside the home, their husbands were entitled to their wages.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mary Beth Norton. 1980. Liberty\u2019s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750\u20131800. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 46.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-1\" href=\"#footnote-139-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> So long as a man provided food, clothing, and shelter for his wife, she was not legally allowed to leave him. Divorce was difficult and in some places impossible to obtain.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid., 47.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-2\" href=\"#footnote-139-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> Higher education for women was not available, and women were barred from professional positions in medicine, law, and ministry.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435558941\">Following the Revolution, women\u2019s conditions did not improve. Women were not granted the right to vote by any of the states except New Jersey, which at first allowed all taxpaying property owners to vote. However, in 1807, the law changed to limit the vote to men.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jan Ellen Lewis. 2011. &quot;Rethinking Women\u2019s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776\u20131807,&quot; Rutgers Law Review 63, No. 3, http:\/\/www.rutgerslawreview.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/archive\/vol63\/Issue3\/Lewis.pdf.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-3\" href=\"#footnote-139-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Changes in property laws actually hurt women by making it easier for their husbands to sell their real property without their consent.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435731841\">Although women had few rights, they nevertheless played an important role in transforming American society. This was especially true in the 1830s and 1840s, a time when numerous social reform movements swept across the United States. Many women were active in these causes, especially the abolition movement and the temperance movement, which tried to end the excessive consumption of liquor. They often found they were hindered in their efforts, however, either by the law or by widely held beliefs that they were weak, silly creatures who should leave important issues to men.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Keyssar, 174.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-4\" href=\"#footnote-139-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> One of the leaders of the early women\u2019s movement, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was shocked and angered when she sought to attend an 1840 antislavery meeting in London, only to learn that women would not be allowed to participate and had to sit apart from the men. At this convention, she made the acquaintance of another American female abolitionist, Lucretia Mott, who was also appalled by the male reformers\u2019 treatment of women.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 1993. Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, 1815\u20131897. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 148.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-5\" href=\"#footnote-139-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_02_StantonMot\"><figcaption>\n<div style=\"width: 832px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201707\/OSC_AmGov_05_02_StantonMot.jpg\" alt=\"Image A is of Elizabeth Cady Stanton with her arms around two children who are seated on her lap. Image B is of Lucretia Mott standing with arms crossed.\" width=\"822\" height=\"493\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Elizabeth Cady Stanton (a) and Lucretia Mott (b) both emerged from the abolitionist movement as strong advocates of women\u2019s rights.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435941325\">In 1848, Stanton and Mott called for a women\u2019s rights convention, the first ever held specifically to address the subject, at Seneca Falls, New York. At the Seneca Falls Convention, Stanton wrote the Declaration of Sentiments, which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed women were equal to men and deserved the same rights. Among the rights Stanton wished to see granted to women was suffrage, the right to vote. When called upon to sign the Declaration, many of the delegates feared that if women demanded the right to vote, the movement would be considered too radical and its members would become a laughingstock. The Declaration passed, but the resolution demanding suffrage was the only one that did not pass unanimously.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Elizabeth Cady Stanton et al. 1887. History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 73.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-6\" href=\"#footnote-139-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435732146\">Along with other feminists (advocates of women\u2019s equality), such as her friend and colleague Susan B. Anthony, Stanton fought for rights for women besides suffrage, including the right to seek higher education. As a result of their efforts, several states passed laws that allowed married women to retain control of their property and let divorced women keep custody of their children.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jean H. Baker. 2005. Sisters: The Lives of America\u2019s Suffragists. New York: Hill and Wang, 109.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-7\" href=\"#footnote-139-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> Amelia Bloomer, another activist, also campaigned for dress reform, believing women could lead better lives and be more useful to society if they were not restricted by voluminous heavy skirts and tight corsets.<\/p>\n<p>The women\u2019s rights movement attracted many women who, like Stanton and Anthony, were active in either the temperance movement, the abolition movement, or both movements. Sarah and Angelina Grimke, the daughters of a wealthy slaveholding family in South Carolina, became first abolitionists and then women\u2019s rights activists.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Angelina Grimke. October 2, 1837. &quot;Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex.&quot; In Letters to Catherine E. Beecher: In Reply to an Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism. Boston: Knapp, 114\u2013121.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-8\" href=\"#footnote-139-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a> Many of these women realized that their effectiveness as reformers was limited by laws that prohibited married women from signing contracts and by social proscriptions against women addressing male audiences. Without such rights, women found it difficult to rent halls in which to deliver lectures or to hire printers to produce antislavery literature.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 461px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201710\/OSC_AmGov_05_03_Parade.jpg\" alt=\"An image of a group of people marching down a street. Several pairs of people are carrying large signs between them. On both sides of the street is a crowd of observers.\" width=\"451\" height=\"281\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> In October 1917, suffragists marched down Fifth Avenue in New York demanding the right to vote. They carried a petition that had been signed by one million women.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435643057\">Following the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, the women\u2019s rights movement fragmented. Stanton and Anthony denounced the Fifteenth Amendment because it granted voting rights only to black men and not to women of any race.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Keyssar, 178.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-9\" href=\"#footnote-139-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a> The fight for women\u2019s rights did not die, however. In 1869, Stanton and Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), which demanded that the Constitution be amended to grant the right to vote to all women. It also called for more lenient divorce laws and an end to sex discrimination in employment. The less radical Lucy Stone formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) in the same year; AWSA hoped to win the suffrage for women by working on a state-by-state basis instead of seeking to amend the Constitution.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Keyssar, 184.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-10\" href=\"#footnote-139-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a> Four western states\u2014Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, and Idaho\u2014did extend the right to vote to women in the late nineteenth century, but no other states did.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435650081\">Women were also granted the right to vote on matters involving liquor licenses, in school board elections, and in municipal elections in several states. However, this was often done because of stereotyped beliefs that associated women with moral reform and concern for children, not as a result of a belief in women\u2019s equality. Furthermore, voting in municipal elections was restricted to women who owned property.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Keyssar, 175, 186\u2013187.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-11\" href=\"#footnote-139-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a> In 1890, the two suffragist groups united to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). To call attention to their cause, members circulated petitions, lobbied politicians, and held parades in which hundreds of women and girls marched through the streets.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435843324\">The more radical National Woman\u2019s Party (NWP), led by Alice Paul, advocated the use of stronger tactics. The NWP held public protests and picketed outside the White House.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Keyssar, 214.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-12\" href=\"#footnote-139-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a> Demonstrators were often beaten and arrested, and suffragists were subjected to cruel treatment in jail. When some, like Paul, began hunger strikes to call attention to their cause, their jailers force-fed them, an incredibly painful and invasive experience for the women.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Alice Paul,&quot; https:\/\/www.nwhm.org\/education-resources\/biography\/biographies\/alice-paul\/ (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-13\" href=\"#footnote-139-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a> Finally, in 1920, the triumphant passage of the Nineteenth Amendment granted all women the right to vote.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_03_NWP\"><figcaption>\n<div style=\"width: 749px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201712\/OSC_AmGov_05_03_NWP.jpg\" alt=\"An image of several people standing in front of a fence. Some people are holding banners. The banners read\" width=\"739\" height=\"352\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Members of the National Woman\u2019s Party picketed outside the White House six days a week from January 10, 1917, when President Woodrow Wilson took office, until June 4, 1919, when the Nineteenth Amendment was passed by Congress. The protesters wore banners proclaiming the name of the institution of higher learning they attended.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435730671\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">CIVIL RIGHTS AND THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435592463\">Just as the passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments did not result in equality for African Americans, the Nineteenth Amendment did not end discrimination against women in education, employment, or other areas of life, which continued to be legal. Although women could vote, they very rarely ran for or held public office. Women continued to be underrepresented in the professions, and relatively few sought advanced degrees. Until the mid-twentieth century, the ideal in U.S. society was typically for women to marry, have children, and become housewives. Those who sought work for pay outside the home were routinely denied jobs because of their sex and, when they did find employment, were paid less than men. Women who wished to remain childless or limit the number of children they had in order to work or attend college found it difficult to do so. In some states it was illegal to sell contraceptive devices, and abortions were largely illegal and difficult for women to obtain.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435685594\">A second women\u2019s rights movement emerged in the 1960s to address these problems. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of sex as well as race, color, national origin, and religion. Nevertheless, women continued to be denied jobs because of their sex and were often sexually harassed at the workplace. In 1966, feminists who were angered by the lack of progress made by women and by the government\u2019s lackluster enforcement of Title VII organized the National Organization for Women (NOW). NOW promoted workplace equality, including equal pay for women, and also called for the greater presence of women in public office, the professions, and graduate and professional degree programs.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435574701\">NOW also declared its support for the <strong>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)<\/strong>, which mandated equal treatment for all regardless of sex. The ERA, written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman, was first proposed to Congress, unsuccessfully, in 1923. It was introduced in every Congress thereafter but did not pass both the House and the Senate until 1972. The amendment was then sent to the states for ratification with a deadline of March 22, 1979. Although many states ratified the amendment in 1972 and 1973, the ERA still lacked sufficient support as the deadline drew near. Opponents, including both women and men, argued that passage would subject women to military conscription and deny them alimony and custody of their children should they divorce.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Deborah Rhode. 2009. Justice and Gender: Sex Discrimination and the Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 66\u201367.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-14\" href=\"#footnote-139-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> In 1978, Congress voted to extend the deadline for ratification to June 30, 1982. Even with the extension, however, the amendment failed to receive the support of the required thirty-eight states; by the time the deadline arrived, it had been ratified by only thirty-five, some of those had rescinded their ratifications, and no new state had ratified the ERA during the extension period.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_03_ERA\"><figcaption>\n<div style=\"width: 990px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201717\/OSC_AmGov_05_03_ERA.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the United States titled\" width=\"980\" height=\"640\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4.<\/strong> The map shows which states supported the ERA and which did not. The dark blue states ratified the amendment. The amendment was ratified but later rescinded in the light blue states and was ratified in only one branch of the legislature in the yellow states. The ERA was never ratified by the purple states.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435570989\">Although the ERA failed to be ratified, <strong>Title IX<\/strong> of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 passed into law as a federal statute (not as an amendment, as the ERA was meant to be). Title IX applies to all educational institutions that receive federal aid and prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in academic programs, dormitory space, health-care access, and school activities including sports. Thus, if a school receives federal aid, it cannot spend more funds on programs for men than on programs for women.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435652210\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">CONTINUING CHALLENGES FOR WOMEN<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435833943\">There is no doubt that women have made great progress since the Seneca Falls Convention. Today, more women than men attend college, and they are more likely than men to graduate.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mark Hugo Lopez and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera. 6 March 2014. &quot;Women\u2019s College Enrollment Gains Leave Men Behind,&quot; http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/03\/06\/womens-college-enrollment-gains-leave-men-behind\/; Allie Bidwell, &quot;Women More Likely to Graduate College, but Still Earn Less Than Men,&quot; U.S. News &amp; World Report, 31 October 2014.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-15\" href=\"#footnote-139-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a> Women are represented in all the professions, and approximately half of all law and medical school students are women.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;A Current Glance at Women in the Law\u2013July 2014,&quot; American Bar Association, July 2014; &quot;Medical School Applicants, Enrollment Reach All-Time Highs,&quot; Association of American Medical Colleges, October 24, 2013.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-16\" href=\"#footnote-139-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> Women have held Cabinet positions and have been elected to Congress. They have run for president and vice president, and three female justices currently serve on the Supreme Court. Women are also represented in all branches of the military and can serve in combat. As a result of the 1973 Supreme Court decision in <em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Roe v. Wade<\/em><\/em>, women now have legal access to abortion.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-17\" href=\"#footnote-139-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435627115\">Nevertheless, women are still underrepresented in some jobs and are less likely to hold executive positions than are men. Many believe the <strong>glass ceiling<\/strong>, an invisible barrier caused by discrimination, prevents women from rising to the highest levels of American organizations, including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious groups. Women earn less money than men for the same work. As of 2014, fully employed women earned seventy-nine cents for every dollar earned by a fully employed man.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Pay Equity and Discrimination,&quot; http:\/\/www.iwpr.org\/initiatives\/pay-equity-and-discrimination (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-18\" href=\"#footnote-139-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a> Women are also more likely to be single parents than are men.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gretchen Livingston. 2 July 2013. &quot;The Rise of Single Fathers,&quot; http:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2013\/07\/02\/the-rise-of-single-fathers\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-19\" href=\"#footnote-139-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a> As a result, more women live below the poverty line than do men, and, as of 2012, households headed by single women are twice as likely to live below the poverty line than those headed by single men.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Poverty in the U.S.: A Snapshot,&quot; National Center for Law and Economic Justice, http:\/\/www.nclej.org\/poverty-in-the-us.php.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-20\" href=\"#footnote-139-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a> Women remain underrepresented in elective offices. As of January 2019, women held only about 24 percent of seats in Congress and only about 29 percent of seats in state legislatures.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Current Numbers,&quot; http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/current-numbers (January 10, 2019).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-21\" href=\"#footnote-139-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Women remain subject to sexual harassment in the workplace and are more likely than men to be the victims of domestic violence. Approximately one-third of all women have experienced domestic violence; one in five women is assaulted during her college years.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Statistics,&quot; http:\/\/www.ncadv.org\/learn\/statistics (April 10, 2016); &quot;Statistics About Sexual Violence,&quot; http:\/\/www.nsvrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-22\" href=\"#footnote-139-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435657972\">Many in the United States continue to call for a ban on abortion, and states have attempted to restrict women\u2019s access to the procedure. For example, many states have required abortion clinics to meet the same standards set for hospitals, such as corridor size and parking lot capacity, despite lack of evidence regarding the benefits of such standards. Abortion clinics, which are smaller than hospitals, often cannot meet such standards. Other restrictions include mandated counseling before the procedure and the need for minors to secure parental permission before obtaining abortion services.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Heather D. Boonstra and Elizabeth Nash. 2014. &quot;A Surge of State Abortion Restrictions Puts Providers\u2013and the Women They Serve\u2013in the Crosshairs,&quot; Guttmacher Policy Review 17, No. 1, https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2014\/03\/surge-state-abortion-restrictions-puts-providers-and-women-they-serve-crosshairs.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-23\" href=\"#footnote-139-23\" aria-label=\"Footnote 23\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[23]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<em data-effect=\"italics\">Whole Woman\u2019s Health v. Hellerstedt<\/em> (2016) cited the lack of evidence for the benefit of larger clinics and further disallowed two Texas laws that imposed special requirements on doctors in order to perform abortions.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Whole Woman\u2019s Health v. Hellerstedt, 579 U.S. ___ (2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-24\" href=\"#footnote-139-24\" aria-label=\"Footnote 24\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[24]<\/sup><\/a> Furthermore, the federal government will not pay for abortions for low-income women except in cases of rape or incest or in situations in which carrying the fetus to term would endanger the life of the mother.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Heather D. Boonstra. 2013. &quot;Insurance Coverage of Abortion: Beyond the Exceptions for Life Endangerment, Rape and Incest,&quot; Guttmacher Policy Review 16, No. 3, https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2013\/09\/insurance-coverage-abortion-beyond-exceptions-life-endangerment-rape-and-incest.\" id=\"return-footnote-139-25\" href=\"#footnote-139-25\" aria-label=\"Footnote 25\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[25]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435551420\">To address these issues, many have called for additional protections for women. These include laws mandating equal pay for equal work. According to the doctrine of <strong>comparable worth<\/strong>, people should be compensated equally for work requiring comparable skills, responsibilities, and effort. Thus, even though women are underrepresented in certain fields, they should receive the same wages as men if performing jobs requiring the same level of accountability, knowledge, skills, and\/or working conditions, even though the specific job may be different.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435921942\">For example, garbage collectors are largely male. The chief job requirements are the ability to drive a sanitation truck and to lift heavy bins and toss their contents into the back of truck. The average wage for a garbage collector is $15.34 an hour.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Garbage Man Salary (United States),&quot; http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Garbage_Man\/Hourly_Rate (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-26\" href=\"#footnote-139-26\" aria-label=\"Footnote 26\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[26]<\/sup><\/a> Daycare workers are largely female, and the average pay is $9.12 an hour.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Child Care\/Day Care Worker Salary (United States),&quot; http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Child_Care_%2F_Day_Care_Worker\/Hourly_Rate (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-139-27\" href=\"#footnote-139-27\" aria-label=\"Footnote 27\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[27]<\/sup><\/a> However, the work arguably requires more skills and is a more responsible position. Daycare workers must be able to feed, clean, and dress small children; prepare meals for them; entertain them; give them medicine if required; and teach them basic skills. They must be educated in first aid and assume responsibility for the children\u2019s safety. In terms of the skills and physical activity required and the associated level of responsibility of the job, daycare workers should be paid at least as much as garbage collectors and perhaps more. Women\u2019s rights advocates also call for stricter enforcement of laws prohibiting sexual harassment, and for harsher punishment, such as mandatory arrest, for perpetrators of domestic violence.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-id1164435834217\" class=\"insider-perspective\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Harry Burn and the Tennessee General Assembly<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435634835\">In 1918, the proposed Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, extending the right to vote to all adult female citizens of the United States, was passed by both houses of Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Thirty-six votes were needed. Throughout 1918 and 1919, the Amendment dragged through legislature after legislature as pro- and anti-suffrage advocates made their arguments. By the summer of 1920, only one more state had to ratify it before it became law. The Amendment passed through Tennessee\u2019s state Senate and went to its House of Representatives. Arguments were bitter and intense. Pro-suffrage advocates argued that the amendment would reward women for their service to the nation during World War I and that women\u2019s supposedly greater morality would help to clean up politics. Those opposed claimed women would be degraded by entrance into the political arena and that their interests were already represented by their male relatives. On August 18, the amendment was brought for a vote before the House. The vote was closely divided, and it seemed unlikely it would pass. But as a young anti-suffrage representative waited for his vote to be counted, he remembered a note he had received from his mother that day. In it, she urged him, &#8220;Hurrah and vote for suffrage!&#8221; At the last minute, Harry Burn abruptly changed his ballot. The amendment passed the House by one vote, and eight days later, the Nineteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435569851\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">How are women perceived in politics today compared to the 1910s? What were the competing arguments for Harry Burn\u2019s vote?<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-id1164435635982\" class=\"american government link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>link to learning<\/h3>\n<p>The website for the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.openstax.org\/l\/29womnathispro\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Women\u2019s National History Project<\/a> contains a variety of resources for learning more about the women\u2019s rights movement and women\u2019s history. It features a history of the women\u2019s movement, a &#8220;This Day in Women\u2019s History&#8221; page, and quizzes to test your knowledge.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164435832702\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164435639400\">At the time of the Revolution and for many decades following it, married women had no right to control their own property, vote, or run for public office. Beginning in the 1840s, a women\u2019s movement began among women who were active in the abolition and temperance movements. Although some of their goals, such as achieving property rights for married women, were reached early on, their biggest goal\u2014winning the right to vote\u2014required the 1920 passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. Women secured more rights in the 1960s and 1970s, such as reproductive rights and the right not to be discriminated against in employment or education. Women continue to face many challenges: they are still paid less than men and are underrepresented in executive positions and elected office.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_15818\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=15818&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_15818\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_15819\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=15819&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_15819\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_15820\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=15820&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_15820\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435608626\">\n<dt>\n<\/dt>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435608626\">\n<dt>Comparable Worth<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164435870020\">a doctrine calling for the same pay for workers whose jobs require the same level of education, responsibility, training, or working conditions<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435893618\">\n<dt>Coverture<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164435895149\">a legal status of married women in which their separate legal identities were erased<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435831896\">\n<dt>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164435641124\">the proposed amendment to the Constitution that would have prohibited all discrimination based on sex<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435893981\">\n<dt>Glass Ceiling<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164435833013\">an invisible barrier caused by discrimination that prevents women from rising to the highest levels of an organization\u2014including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious organizations<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164435609919\">\n<dt>Title IX<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164435610825\">the section of the U.S. Education Amendments of 1972 that prohibits discrimination in education on the basis of sex<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-139\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>American Government 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/nY32AU8S@5.1:xJJkKaSK@5\/Preface\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/nY32AU8S@5.1:xJJkKaSK@5\/Preface<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9d8df601-4f12-4ac1-8224-b450bf739e5f@5.1<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Sex Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics #30. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=1uFh4GTZH-U&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOfse2ncvffeelTrqvhrz8H&#038;index=30\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=1uFh4GTZH-U&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOfse2ncvffeelTrqvhrz8H&#038;index=30<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube license<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-139-1\">Mary Beth Norton. 1980. Liberty\u2019s Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 1750\u20131800. New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 46. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-2\">Ibid., 47. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-3\">Jan Ellen Lewis. 2011. \"Rethinking Women\u2019s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776\u20131807,\" Rutgers Law Review 63, No. 3, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rutgerslawreview.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/archive\/vol63\/Issue3\/Lewis.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.rutgerslawreview.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/archive\/vol63\/Issue3\/Lewis.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-4\">Keyssar, 174. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-5\">Elizabeth Cady Stanton. 1993. Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, 1815\u20131897. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 148. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-6\">Elizabeth Cady Stanton et al. 1887. History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 73. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-7\">Jean H. Baker. 2005. Sisters: The Lives of America\u2019s Suffragists. New York: Hill and Wang, 109. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-8\">Angelina Grimke. October 2, 1837. \"Letter XII Human Rights Not Founded on Sex.\" In Letters to Catherine E. Beecher: In Reply to an Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism. Boston: Knapp, 114\u2013121. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-9\">Keyssar, 178. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-10\">Keyssar, 184. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-11\">Keyssar, 175, 186\u2013187. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-12\">Keyssar, 214. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-13\">\"Alice Paul,\" <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nwhm.org\/education-resources\/biography\/biographies\/alice-paul\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nwhm.org\/education-resources\/biography\/biographies\/alice-paul\/<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-14\">Deborah Rhode. 2009. Justice and Gender: Sex Discrimination and the Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 66\u201367. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-15\">Mark Hugo Lopez and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera. 6 March 2014. \"Women\u2019s College Enrollment Gains Leave Men Behind,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/03\/06\/womens-college-enrollment-gains-leave-men-behind\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/03\/06\/womens-college-enrollment-gains-leave-men-behind\/<\/a>; Allie Bidwell, \"Women More Likely to Graduate College, but Still Earn Less Than Men,\" U.S. News &amp; World Report, 31 October 2014. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-16\">\"A Current Glance at Women in the Law\u2013July 2014,\" American Bar Association, July 2014; \"Medical School Applicants, Enrollment Reach All-Time Highs,\" Association of American Medical Colleges, October 24, 2013. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-17\">Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-18\">\"Pay Equity and Discrimination,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.iwpr.org\/initiatives\/pay-equity-and-discrimination\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.iwpr.org\/initiatives\/pay-equity-and-discrimination<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-19\">Gretchen Livingston. 2 July 2013. \"The Rise of Single Fathers,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2013\/07\/02\/the-rise-of-single-fathers\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.pewsocialtrends.org\/2013\/07\/02\/the-rise-of-single-fathers\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-20\">\"Poverty in the U.S.: A Snapshot,\" National Center for Law and Economic Justice, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nclej.org\/poverty-in-the-us.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.nclej.org\/poverty-in-the-us.php<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-21\">\"Current Numbers,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/current-numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/current-numbers<\/a> (January 10, 2019). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-22\">\"Statistics,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ncadv.org\/learn\/statistics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.ncadv.org\/learn\/statistics<\/a> (April 10, 2016); \"Statistics About Sexual Violence,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nsvrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.nsvrc.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-23\">Heather D. Boonstra and Elizabeth Nash. 2014. \"A Surge of State Abortion Restrictions Puts Providers\u2013and the Women They Serve\u2013in the Crosshairs,\" Guttmacher Policy Review 17, No. 1, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2014\/03\/surge-state-abortion-restrictions-puts-providers-and-women-they-serve-crosshairs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2014\/03\/surge-state-abortion-restrictions-puts-providers-and-women-they-serve-crosshairs<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-23\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 23\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-24\">Whole Woman\u2019s Health v. Hellerstedt, 579 U.S. ___ (2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-24\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 24\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-25\">Heather D. Boonstra. 2013. \"Insurance Coverage of Abortion: Beyond the Exceptions for Life Endangerment, Rape and Incest,\" Guttmacher Policy Review 16, No. 3, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2013\/09\/insurance-coverage-abortion-beyond-exceptions-life-endangerment-rape-and-incest\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/about\/gpr\/2013\/09\/insurance-coverage-abortion-beyond-exceptions-life-endangerment-rape-and-incest<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-25\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 25\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-26\">\"Garbage Man Salary (United States),\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Garbage_Man\/Hourly_Rate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Garbage_Man\/Hourly_Rate<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-26\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 26\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-139-27\">\"Child Care\/Day Care Worker Salary (United States),\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Child_Care_%2F_Day_Care_Worker\/Hourly_Rate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.payscale.com\/research\/US\/Job=Child_Care_%2F_Day_Care_Worker\/Hourly_Rate<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-139-27\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 27\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":45325,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"American Government 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/nY32AU8S@5.1:xJJkKaSK@5\/Preface\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9d8df601-4f12-4ac1-8224-b450bf739e5f@5.1\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Sex Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics #30\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"CrashCourse\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=1uFh4GTZH-U&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOfse2ncvffeelTrqvhrz8H&index=30\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube license\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-139","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":121,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/139","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/45325"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/139\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2178,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/139\/revisions\/2178"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/121"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/139\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=139"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=139"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=139"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=139"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}