{"id":143,"date":"2019-04-24T20:17:27","date_gmt":"2019-04-24T20:17:27","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/os-amgovernment2e\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=143"},"modified":"2019-08-01T03:15:06","modified_gmt":"2019-08-01T03:15:06","slug":"civil-rights-for-indigenous-groups-native-americans-alaskans-and-hawaiians","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/chapter\/civil-rights-for-indigenous-groups-native-americans-alaskans-and-hawaiians\/","title":{"raw":"Civil Rights for Indigenous Groups: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians","rendered":"Civil Rights for Indigenous Groups: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1164436760792\" class=\"learning-objectives\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436824810\">By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-id1164436845486\">\r\n \t<li>Outline the history of discrimination against Native Americans<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the expansion of Native American civil rights from 1960 to 1990<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss the persistence of problems Native Americans face today<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436870354\">Native Americans have long suffered the effects of segregation and discrimination imposed by the U.S. government and the larger white society. Ironically, Native Americans were not granted the full rights and protections of U.S. citizenship until long after African Americans and women were, with many having to wait until the Nationality Act of 1940 to become citizens.[footnote]Theodore Haas. 1957. \"The Legal Aspects of Indian Affairs from 1887 to 1957,\" American Academy of Political Science 311, 12\u201322.[\/footnote] This was long after the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, which granted citizenship to African Americans but not, the Supreme Court decided in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Elk v. Wilkins<\/em> (1884), to Native Americans.[footnote]Elk v. Wilkins, (1884)112 U.S. 94.[\/footnote] White women had been citizens of the United States since its very beginning even though they were not granted the full rights of citizenship. Furthermore, Native Americans are the only group of Americans who were forcibly removed en masse from the lands on which they and their ancestors had lived so that others could claim this land and its resources. This issue remains relevant today as can be seen in the recent protests of the Dakota Access Pipeline, which have led to intense confrontations between those in charge of the pipeline and Native Americans.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1164436859304\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to learn more about discrimination in the United States.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/P-yviKu8Odo\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">NATIVE AMERICANS LOSE THEIR LAND AND THEIR RIGHTS<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436877020\">From the very beginning of European settlement in North America, Native Americans were abused and exploited. Early British settlers attempted to enslave the members of various tribes, especially in the southern colonies and states.[footnote]See Alan Gallay. 2009. Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.[\/footnote] Following the American Revolution, the U.S. government assumed responsibility for conducting negotiations with Indian tribes, all of which were designated as sovereign nations, and regulating commerce with them. Because Indians were officially regarded as citizens of other nations, they were denied U.S. citizenship.[footnote]See James Wilson. 1998. The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America. New York: Grove Press.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436843678\">As white settlement spread westward over the course of the nineteenth century, Indian tribes were forced to move from their homelands. Although the federal government signed numerous treaties guaranteeing Indians the right to live in the places where they had traditionally farmed, hunted, or fished, land-hungry white settlers routinely violated these agreements and the federal government did little to enforce them.[footnote]Ibid; Gloria Jahoda. 1975. Trail of Tears: The Story of American Indian Removal, 1813\u20131855. New York: Henry Holt.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436859549\">In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which forced Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River.[footnote]See Wilson. 1998. The Earth Shall Weep.[\/footnote] Not all tribes were willing to leave their land, however. The Cherokee in particular resisted, and in the 1820s, the state of Georgia tried numerous tactics to force them from their territory. Efforts intensified in 1829 after gold was discovered there. Wishing to remain where they were, the tribe sued the state of Georgia.[footnote]See John Ehle. 1988. Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday; Theda Perdue and Michael Green. 2007. The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears. New York: Penguin Books.[\/footnote] In 1831, the Supreme Court decided in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia<\/em> that Indian tribes were not sovereign nations, but also that tribes were entitled to their ancestral lands and could not be forced to move from them.[footnote]Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436850666\">The next year, in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Worcester v. Georgia<\/em>, the Court ruled that whites could not enter tribal lands without the tribe\u2019s permission. White Georgians, however, refused to abide by the Court\u2019s decision, and President Andrew Jackson, a former Indian fighter, refused to enforce it.[footnote]Francis Paul Prucha. 1984. The Great Father: The United States Government and American Indians, vol. 1. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 212; Robert V. Remini. 2001. Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 257; Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515 (1832).[\/footnote] Between 1831 and 1838, members of several southern tribes, including the Cherokees, were forced by the U.S. Army to move west.\u00a0The forced removal of the Cherokees to Oklahoma Territory, which had been set aside for settlement by displaced tribes and designated Indian Territory, resulted in the death of one-quarter of the tribe\u2019s population.[footnote]Prucha, 241; Ehle, 390\u2013392; Russell Thornton. 1991. \"Demography of the Trail of Tears,\" In Cherokee Removal: Before and After, ed. William L. Anderson. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 75\u201393.[\/footnote] The Cherokees remember this journey as the <strong>Trail of Tears<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_04_Trail\"><figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201720\/OSC_AmGov_05_04_Trail.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the United States showing the southeast quarter of the country. On the map the paths of Indian Removal are shown. For \" width=\"975\" height=\"745\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> After the passage of the Indian Removal Act, the U.S. military forced the removal of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole from the Southeast to the western territory (present-day Oklahoma), marching them along the routes shown here. The lines in yellow mark the routes taken by the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436854291\">By the time of the Civil War, most Indian tribes had been relocated west of the Mississippi. However, once large numbers of white Americans and European immigrants had also moved west after the Civil War, Native Americans once again found themselves displaced. They were confined to reservations, which are federal lands set aside for their use where non-Indians could not settle. Reservation land was usually poor, however, and attempts to farm or raise livestock, not traditional occupations for most western tribes anyway, often ended in failure. Unable to feed themselves, the tribes became dependent on the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in Washington, DC, for support. Protestant missionaries were allowed to \"adopt\" various tribes, to convert them to Christianity and thus speed their assimilation. In an effort to hasten this process, Indian children were taken from their parents and sent to boarding schools, many of them run by churches, where they were forced to speak English and abandon their traditional cultures.[footnote]\u201cIndian Reservations,\u201d<a href=\"http:\/\/galeapps.galegroup.com\/apps\/auth?userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;origURL=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DUHIC%26u%3Dlnoca_hawken%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3401802046&amp;prodId=UHIC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539<\/a>\u00a0(April 10, 2016).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436843008\">In 1887, the Dawes Severalty Act, another effort to assimilate Indians to white society, divided reservation lands into individual allotments. Native Americans who accepted these allotments and agreed to sever tribal ties were also given U.S. citizenship. All lands remaining after the division of reservations into allotments were offered for sale by the federal government to white farmers and ranchers. As a result, Indians swiftly lost control of reservation land.[footnote]Ibid.[\/footnote] In 1898, the Curtis Act dealt the final blow to Indian sovereignty by abolishing all tribal governments.[footnote]\"Curtis Act (1898),\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.okhistory.org\/publications\/enc\/entry.php?entry=CU006\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.okhistory.org\/publications\/enc\/entry.php?entry=CU006<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3><span style=\"color: #6c64ad; font-size: 1em; font-weight: 600;\">THE FIGHT FOR NATIVE AMERICAN RIGHTS<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1164436930495\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436869470\">As Indians were removed from their tribal lands and increasingly saw their traditional cultures being destroyed over the course of the nineteenth century, a movement to protect their rights began to grow. Sarah Winnemucca, member of the Paiute tribe, lectured throughout the east in the 1880s in order to acquaint white audiences with the injustices suffered by the western tribes.[footnote]See Gae Whitney Canfield. 1988. Sarah Winnemucca of the Northern Paiutes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.[\/footnote] Lakota physician Charles Eastman also worked for Native American rights. In 1924, the Indian Citizenship Act granted citizenship to all Native Americans born after its passage. Native Americans born before the act took effect, who had not already become citizens as a result of the Dawes Severalty Act or service in the army in World War I, had to wait until the Nationality Act of 1940 to become citizens. In 1934, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act, which ended the division of reservation land into allotments. It returned to Native American tribes the right to institute self-government on their reservations, write constitutions, and manage their remaining lands and resources. It also provided funds for Native Americans to start their own businesses and attain a college education.[footnote]Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (P.L. 73\u2013383); \"Indian Reservations,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/galeapps.galegroup.com\/apps\/auth?userGroupName=&amp;origURL=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DUHIC%26u%3D%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3D&amp;prodId=UHIC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_04_Activists\"><figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"825\"]<img style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201723\/OSC_AmGov_05_04_Activists.jpg\" alt=\"Image A is of Sarah Winnemucca wearing traditional Paiute clothing. Image B is of Charles Eastman wearing a suit.\" width=\"825\" height=\"592\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Sarah Winnemucca (a), called the \"Paiute Princess\" by the press, and Dr. Charles Eastman (b), of the Lakota tribe, campaigned for Native American rights in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Winnemucca wears traditional dress for a publicity photograph.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436667835\">Despite the Indian Reorganization Act, conditions on the reservations did not improve dramatically. Most tribes remained impoverished, and many Native Americans, despite the fact that they were now U.S. citizens, were denied the right to vote by the states in which they lived. States justified this violation of the Fifteenth Amendment by claiming that Native Americans might be U.S. citizens but were not state residents because they lived on reservations. Other states denied Native Americans voting rights if they did not pay taxes.[footnote]Daniel McCool, Susan M. Olson, and Jennifer L. Robinson. 2007. Native Vote. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 9, 19.[\/footnote] Despite states\u2019 actions, the federal government continued to uphold the rights of tribes to govern themselves. Federal concern for tribal sovereignty was part of an effort on the government\u2019s part to end its control of, and obligations to, Indian tribes.[footnote]\"Indian Reservations,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/galeapps.galegroup.com\/apps\/auth?userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;origURL=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DUHIC%26u%3Dlnoca_hawken%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3401802046&amp;prodId=UHIC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436706617\">In the 1960s, a modern Native American civil rights movement, inspired by the African American civil rights movement, began to grow. In 1969, a group of Native American activists from various tribes, part of a new Pan-Indian movement, took control of Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, which had once been the site of a federal prison. Attempting to strike a blow for Red Power, the power of Native Americans united by a Pan-Indian identity and demanding federal recognition of their rights, they maintained control of the island for more than a year and a half. They claimed the land as compensation for the federal government\u2019s violation of numerous treaties and offered to pay for it with beads and trinkets. In January 1970, some of the occupiers began to leave the island. Some may have been disheartened by the accidental death of the daughter of one of the activists. In May 1970, all electricity and telephone service to the island was cut off by the federal government, and more of the occupiers began to leave. In June, the few people remaining on the island were removed by the government. Though the goals of the activists were not achieved, the occupation of Alcatraz had brought national attention to the concerns of Native American activists.[footnote]See Troy R. Johnson. 1996. The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of Indian Activism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436764170\">In 1973, members of the <strong>American Indian Movement (AIM)<\/strong>, a more radical group than the occupiers of Alcatraz, temporarily took over the offices of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, DC. The following year, members of AIM and some two hundred Oglala Lakota supporters occupied the town of Wounded Knee on the Lakota tribe\u2019s Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, the site of an 1890 massacre of Lakota men, women, and children by the U.S. Army. Many of the Oglala were protesting the actions of their half-white tribal chieftain, who they claimed had worked too closely with the BIA. The occupiers also wished to protest the failure of the Justice Department to investigate acts of white violence against Lakota tribal members outside the bounds of the reservation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436869776\">The occupation led to a confrontation between the Native American protestors and the FBI and U.S. Marshals. Violence erupted; two Native American activists were killed, and a marshal was shot. After the second death, the Lakota called for an end to the occupation and negotiations began with the federal government. Two of AIM\u2019s leaders, Russell Means and Dennis Banks, were arrested, but the case against them was later dismissed.[footnote]Emily Chertoff, \"Occupy Wounded Knee: A 71-Day Siege and a Forgotten Civil Rights Movement,\" The Atlantic, 23 October 2012. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/national\/archive\/2012\/10\/occupy-wounded-knee-a-71-day-siege-and-a-forgotten-civil-rights-movement\/263998\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/national\/archive\/2012\/10\/occupy-wounded-knee-a-71-day-siege-and-a-forgotten-civil-rights-movement\/263998\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] Violence continued on the Pine Ridge Reservation for several years after the siege; the reservation had the highest per capita murder rate in the United States. Two FBI agents were among those who were killed. The Oglala blamed the continuing violence on the federal government.[footnote]Ibid.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_04_Wknee\"><figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"825\"]<img style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201725\/OSC_AmGov_05_04_Wknee.jpg\" alt=\"Image A is of three people placing a wreath of flowers in front of a stone monument. Image B is of the side of a truck which is riddled with bullet holes.\" width=\"825\" height=\"445\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> A memorial stone (a) marks the spot of the mass grave of the Lakotas killed in the 1890 massacre at Wounded Knee. The bullet-riddled car (b) of FBI agent Ronald Williams reveals the level of violence reached during\u2014and for years after\u2014the 1973 occupation of the town.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1164436854029\" class=\"american government link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>link to learning<\/h3>\r\nThe official website of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.openstax.org\/l\/29aimovement\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">American Indian Movement<\/a> provides information about ongoing issues in Native American communities in both North and South America.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436862176\">The current relationship between the U.S. government and Native American tribes was established by the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. Under the act, tribes assumed control of programs that had formerly been controlled by the BIA, such as education and resource management, and the federal government provided the funding.[footnote]Public Law 93\u2013638: Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, as Amended.[\/footnote] Many tribes have also used their new freedom from government control to legalize gambling and to open casinos on their reservations. Although the states in which these casinos are located have attempted to control gaming on Native American lands, the Supreme Court and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 have limited their ability to do so.[footnote]W. Dale Mason. 2000. Indian Gaming: Tribal Sovereignty and American Politics. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 60\u201364.[\/footnote] The 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act granted tribes the right to conduct traditional ceremonies and rituals, including those that use otherwise prohibited substances like peyote cactus and eagle bones, which can be procured only from vulnerable or protected species.[footnote]Public Law 95\u2013341: American Indian Religious Freedom, Joint Resolution.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-682\">In an important recent development, several federal court cases have raised standing for Native American tribes to sue to regain former reservation lands lost to the U.S. government. If Native Americans were to gain a positive outcome in such a case, especially at the U.S. Supreme Court, it would be the most important advancement since the reapplication of the Winters Doctrine (which led to a stronger footing for tribes in water negotiations).[footnote]Winters v. United States, 207 U.S. 564 (1908).[\/footnote] Among the reservation land cases making their way through the system, <em data-effect=\"italics\">Carpenter v. Murphy<\/em>, which revolves around a murder case in Oklahoma, would perhaps be the most profound, given the history of the Trail of Tears. At issue is whether Mr. Murphy committed murder on private land in the state of Oklahoma or on the Muscogee (Creek) reservation and who should have jurisdiction over his case. If the court decides to proclaim the land as a reservation, that potentially leads to half the State of Oklahoma being designated as such. The Court heard arguments in late 2018 and will make a decision in 2019.[footnote]Adam Liptak.27 November 2018. \"Is Half of Oklahoma an Indian Reservation? The Supreme Court Sifts the Merits.\" New York Times. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/11\/27\/us\/politics\/oklahoma-indian-territory-supreme-court.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/11\/27\/us\/politics\/oklahoma-indian-territory-supreme-court.html<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3><span style=\"color: #6c64ad; font-size: 1em; font-weight: 600;\">ALASKA NATIVES AND NATIVE HAWAIIANS REGAIN SOME RIGHTS<\/span><\/h3>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1164436739842\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436870951\">Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians suffered many of the same abuses as Native Americans, including loss of land and forced assimilation. Following the discovery of oil in Alaska, however, the state, in an effort to gain undisputed title to oil rich land, settled the issue of Alaska Natives\u2019 land claims with the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971. According to the terms of the act, Alaska Natives received 44 million acres of resource-rich land and more than $900 million in cash in exchange for relinquishing claims to ancestral lands to which the state wanted title.[footnote]U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, \"Racism\u2019s Frontier: The Untold Story of Discrimination and Division in Alaska,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.usccr.gov\/pubs\/sac\/ak0402\/ch1.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.usccr.gov\/pubs\/sac\/ak0402\/ch1.htm<\/a> (April 10, 2016).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436750172\">Native Hawaiians also lost control of their land\u2014nearly two million acres\u2014through the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893 and the subsequent formal annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States in 1898. The indigenous population rapidly decreased in number, and white settlers tried to erase all trace of traditional Hawaiian culture. Two acts passed by Congress in 1900 and 1959, when the territory was granted statehood, returned slightly more than one million acres of federally owned land to the state of Hawaii. The state was to hold it in trust and use profits from the land to improve the condition of Native Hawaiians.[footnote]Ryan Mielke, \"Hawaiians\u2019 Years of Mistreatment,\" Chicago Tribune, 4 September 1999. <a href=\"http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-09-04\/news\/9909040141_1_hawaiians-oha-land-trust\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-09-04\/news\/9909040141_1_hawaiians-oha-land-trust<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436758804\">In September 2015, the U.S. Department of Interior, the same department that contains the Bureau of Indian Affairs, created guidelines for Native Hawaiians who wish to govern themselves in a relationship with the federal government similar to that established with Native American and Alaska Native tribes. Such a relationship would grant Native Hawaiians power to govern themselves while remaining U.S. citizens. Voting began in fall 2015 for delegates to a constitutional convention that would determine whether or not such a relationship should exist between Native Hawaiians and the federal government[footnote]Brittany Lyte, \"Historic Election Could Return Sovereignty to Native Hawaiians,\" Aljazeera America 30 Oct. 2015, <a href=\"http:\/\/america.aljazeera.com\/articles\/2015\/10\/30\/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/america.aljazeera.com\/articles\/2015\/10\/30\/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html<\/a>.[\/footnote] When non-Native Hawaiians and some Native Hawaiians brought suit on the grounds that, by allowing only Native Hawaiians to vote, the process discriminated against members of other ethnic groups, a federal district court found the election to be legal. While the Supreme Court stopped the election, in September 2016 a separate ruling by the Interior Department allowed for a referendum to be held. Native Hawaiians in favor are working to create their own nation.[footnote]Jason Daley. 28 September 2016. \"Rule Allows Native Hawaiians to Form Their Own Government.\" Smithosian.com. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/rule-allows-native-hawaiians-form-their-own-government-180960598\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/rule-allows-native-hawaiians-form-their-own-government-180960598\/<\/a>. Brittany Lyte. 5 November 2017. \"Native Hawaiians Again Seek Political Sovereignty with a New Constitution.\" Washington Post. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/national\/native-hawaiians-again-seek-political-sovereignty-with-a-new-constitution\/2017\/11\/05\/833842d2-b905-11e7-be94-fabb0f1e9ffb_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.b456552351c1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/national\/native-hawaiians-again-seek-political-sovereignty-with-a-new-constitution\/2017\/11\/05\/833842d2-b905-11e7-be94-fabb0f1e9ffb_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.b456552351c1<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436882541\">Despite significant advances, American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians still trail behind U.S. citizens of other ethnic backgrounds in many important areas. These groups continue to suffer widespread poverty and high unemployment. Some of the poorest counties in the United States are those in which Native American reservations are located. These minorities are also less likely than white Americans, African Americans, or Asian Americans to complete high school or college.[footnote]Jens Manuel Krogstad. 13 June 2014. \"One-in-Four Native Americans and Alaska Natives Are Living in Poverty,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/06\/13\/1-in-4-native-americans-and-alaska-natives-are-living-in-poverty\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/06\/13\/1-in-4-native-americans-and-alaska-natives-are-living-in-poverty\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] Many American Indian and Alaskan tribes endure high rates of infant mortality, alcoholism, and suicide.[footnote]Karina L. Walters, Jane M. Simoni, and Teresa Evans-Campbell. 2002. \"Substance Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Incorporating Culture in an \u2018Indigenist\u2019 Stess-Coping Paradigm,\" Public Health Reports 117: S105.[\/footnote] Native Hawaiians are also more likely to live in poverty than whites in Hawaii, and they are more likely than white Hawaiians to be homeless or unemployed.[footnote]Kehaulani Lum, \"Native Hawaiians\u2019 Trail of Tears,\" Chicago Tribune, 24 August 1999. <a href=\"http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-08-24\/news\/9908240280_1_native-hawaiians-hawaiian-people-aleuts\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-08-24\/news\/9908240280_1_native-hawaiians-hawaiian-people-aleuts<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">At the beginning of U.S. history, Indians were considered citizens of sovereign nations and thus ineligible for citizenship, and they were forced off their ancestral lands and onto reservations. Interest in Indian rights arose in the late nineteenth century, and in the 1930s, Native Americans were granted a degree of control over reservation lands and the right to govern themselves. Following World War II, they won greater rights to govern themselves, educate their children, decide how tribal lands should be used\u2014to build casinos, for example\u2014and practice traditional religious rituals without federal interference. Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians have faced similar difficulties, but since the 1960s, they have been somewhat successful in having lands restored to them or obtaining compensation for their loss. Despite these achievements, members of these groups still tend to be poorer, less educated, less likely to be employed, and more likely to suffer addictions or to be incarcerated than other racial and ethnic groups in the United States.<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/15821\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/15822\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/15823\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164436821513\">\r\n \t<dt>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164436821513\">\r\n \t<dt>American Indian Movement (AIM)<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164436721069\">the Native American civil rights group responsible for the occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164436745554\">\r\n \t<dt>Trail of Tears<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-id1164436867324\">the name given to the forced migration of the Cherokees from Georgia to Oklahoma in 1838\u20131839<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div><\/dt>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164436760792\" class=\"learning-objectives\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436824810\">By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-id1164436845486\">\n<li>Outline the history of discrimination against Native Americans<\/li>\n<li>Describe the expansion of Native American civil rights from 1960 to 1990<\/li>\n<li>Discuss the persistence of problems Native Americans face today<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436870354\">Native Americans have long suffered the effects of segregation and discrimination imposed by the U.S. government and the larger white society. Ironically, Native Americans were not granted the full rights and protections of U.S. citizenship until long after African Americans and women were, with many having to wait until the Nationality Act of 1940 to become citizens.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Theodore Haas. 1957. &quot;The Legal Aspects of Indian Affairs from 1887 to 1957,&quot; American Academy of Political Science 311, 12\u201322.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-1\" href=\"#footnote-143-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> This was long after the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, which granted citizenship to African Americans but not, the Supreme Court decided in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Elk v. Wilkins<\/em> (1884), to Native Americans.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Elk v. Wilkins, (1884)112 U.S. 94.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-2\" href=\"#footnote-143-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> White women had been citizens of the United States since its very beginning even though they were not granted the full rights of citizenship. Furthermore, Native Americans are the only group of Americans who were forcibly removed en masse from the lands on which they and their ancestors had lived so that others could claim this land and its resources. This issue remains relevant today as can be seen in the recent protests of the Dakota Access Pipeline, which have led to intense confrontations between those in charge of the pipeline and Native Americans.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164436859304\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>watch it<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to learn more about discrimination in the United States.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics #31\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/P-yviKu8Odo?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">NATIVE AMERICANS LOSE THEIR LAND AND THEIR RIGHTS<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436877020\">From the very beginning of European settlement in North America, Native Americans were abused and exploited. Early British settlers attempted to enslave the members of various tribes, especially in the southern colonies and states.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Alan Gallay. 2009. Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-3\" href=\"#footnote-143-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Following the American Revolution, the U.S. government assumed responsibility for conducting negotiations with Indian tribes, all of which were designated as sovereign nations, and regulating commerce with them. Because Indians were officially regarded as citizens of other nations, they were denied U.S. citizenship.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See James Wilson. 1998. The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America. New York: Grove Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-4\" href=\"#footnote-143-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436843678\">As white settlement spread westward over the course of the nineteenth century, Indian tribes were forced to move from their homelands. Although the federal government signed numerous treaties guaranteeing Indians the right to live in the places where they had traditionally farmed, hunted, or fished, land-hungry white settlers routinely violated these agreements and the federal government did little to enforce them.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid; Gloria Jahoda. 1975. Trail of Tears: The Story of American Indian Removal, 1813\u20131855. New York: Henry Holt.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-5\" href=\"#footnote-143-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436859549\">In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which forced Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Wilson. 1998. The Earth Shall Weep.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-6\" href=\"#footnote-143-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> Not all tribes were willing to leave their land, however. The Cherokee in particular resisted, and in the 1820s, the state of Georgia tried numerous tactics to force them from their territory. Efforts intensified in 1829 after gold was discovered there. Wishing to remain where they were, the tribe sued the state of Georgia.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See John Ehle. 1988. Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday; Theda Perdue and Michael Green. 2007. The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears. New York: Penguin Books.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-7\" href=\"#footnote-143-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> In 1831, the Supreme Court decided in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia<\/em> that Indian tribes were not sovereign nations, but also that tribes were entitled to their ancestral lands and could not be forced to move from them.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-8\" href=\"#footnote-143-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436850666\">The next year, in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Worcester v. Georgia<\/em>, the Court ruled that whites could not enter tribal lands without the tribe\u2019s permission. White Georgians, however, refused to abide by the Court\u2019s decision, and President Andrew Jackson, a former Indian fighter, refused to enforce it.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Francis Paul Prucha. 1984. The Great Father: The United States Government and American Indians, vol. 1. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 212; Robert V. Remini. 2001. Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 257; Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515 (1832).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-9\" href=\"#footnote-143-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a> Between 1831 and 1838, members of several southern tribes, including the Cherokees, were forced by the U.S. Army to move west.\u00a0The forced removal of the Cherokees to Oklahoma Territory, which had been set aside for settlement by displaced tribes and designated Indian Territory, resulted in the death of one-quarter of the tribe\u2019s population.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Prucha, 241; Ehle, 390\u2013392; Russell Thornton. 1991. &quot;Demography of the Trail of Tears,&quot; In Cherokee Removal: Before and After, ed. William L. Anderson. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 75\u201393.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-10\" href=\"#footnote-143-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a> The Cherokees remember this journey as the <strong>Trail of Tears<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_04_Trail\"><figcaption>\n<div style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201720\/OSC_AmGov_05_04_Trail.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the United States showing the southeast quarter of the country. On the map the paths of Indian Removal are shown. For\" width=\"975\" height=\"745\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> After the passage of the Indian Removal Act, the U.S. military forced the removal of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole from the Southeast to the western territory (present-day Oklahoma), marching them along the routes shown here. The lines in yellow mark the routes taken by the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436854291\">By the time of the Civil War, most Indian tribes had been relocated west of the Mississippi. However, once large numbers of white Americans and European immigrants had also moved west after the Civil War, Native Americans once again found themselves displaced. They were confined to reservations, which are federal lands set aside for their use where non-Indians could not settle. Reservation land was usually poor, however, and attempts to farm or raise livestock, not traditional occupations for most western tribes anyway, often ended in failure. Unable to feed themselves, the tribes became dependent on the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in Washington, DC, for support. Protestant missionaries were allowed to &#8220;adopt&#8221; various tribes, to convert them to Christianity and thus speed their assimilation. In an effort to hasten this process, Indian children were taken from their parents and sent to boarding schools, many of them run by churches, where they were forced to speak English and abandon their traditional cultures.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cIndian Reservations,\u201dhttp:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539\u00a0(April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-11\" href=\"#footnote-143-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436843008\">In 1887, the Dawes Severalty Act, another effort to assimilate Indians to white society, divided reservation lands into individual allotments. Native Americans who accepted these allotments and agreed to sever tribal ties were also given U.S. citizenship. All lands remaining after the division of reservations into allotments were offered for sale by the federal government to white farmers and ranchers. As a result, Indians swiftly lost control of reservation land.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-12\" href=\"#footnote-143-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a> In 1898, the Curtis Act dealt the final blow to Indian sovereignty by abolishing all tribal governments.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Curtis Act (1898),&quot; http:\/\/www.okhistory.org\/publications\/enc\/entry.php?entry=CU006 (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-13\" href=\"#footnote-143-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"color: #6c64ad; font-size: 1em; font-weight: 600;\">THE FIGHT FOR NATIVE AMERICAN RIGHTS<\/span><\/h3>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164436930495\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436869470\">As Indians were removed from their tribal lands and increasingly saw their traditional cultures being destroyed over the course of the nineteenth century, a movement to protect their rights began to grow. Sarah Winnemucca, member of the Paiute tribe, lectured throughout the east in the 1880s in order to acquaint white audiences with the injustices suffered by the western tribes.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Gae Whitney Canfield. 1988. Sarah Winnemucca of the Northern Paiutes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-14\" href=\"#footnote-143-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> Lakota physician Charles Eastman also worked for Native American rights. In 1924, the Indian Citizenship Act granted citizenship to all Native Americans born after its passage. Native Americans born before the act took effect, who had not already become citizens as a result of the Dawes Severalty Act or service in the army in World War I, had to wait until the Nationality Act of 1940 to become citizens. In 1934, Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act, which ended the division of reservation land into allotments. It returned to Native American tribes the right to institute self-government on their reservations, write constitutions, and manage their remaining lands and resources. It also provided funds for Native Americans to start their own businesses and attain a college education.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (P.L. 73\u2013383); &quot;Indian Reservations,&quot; http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539 (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-15\" href=\"#footnote-143-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_04_Activists\"><figcaption>\n<div style=\"width: 835px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201723\/OSC_AmGov_05_04_Activists.jpg\" alt=\"Image A is of Sarah Winnemucca wearing traditional Paiute clothing. Image B is of Charles Eastman wearing a suit.\" width=\"825\" height=\"592\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.<\/strong> Sarah Winnemucca (a), called the &#8220;Paiute Princess&#8221; by the press, and Dr. Charles Eastman (b), of the Lakota tribe, campaigned for Native American rights in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Winnemucca wears traditional dress for a publicity photograph.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436667835\">Despite the Indian Reorganization Act, conditions on the reservations did not improve dramatically. Most tribes remained impoverished, and many Native Americans, despite the fact that they were now U.S. citizens, were denied the right to vote by the states in which they lived. States justified this violation of the Fifteenth Amendment by claiming that Native Americans might be U.S. citizens but were not state residents because they lived on reservations. Other states denied Native Americans voting rights if they did not pay taxes.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Daniel McCool, Susan M. Olson, and Jennifer L. Robinson. 2007. Native Vote. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 9, 19.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-16\" href=\"#footnote-143-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> Despite states\u2019 actions, the federal government continued to uphold the rights of tribes to govern themselves. Federal concern for tribal sovereignty was part of an effort on the government\u2019s part to end its control of, and obligations to, Indian tribes.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Indian Reservations,&quot; http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539 (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-17\" href=\"#footnote-143-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436706617\">In the 1960s, a modern Native American civil rights movement, inspired by the African American civil rights movement, began to grow. In 1969, a group of Native American activists from various tribes, part of a new Pan-Indian movement, took control of Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, which had once been the site of a federal prison. Attempting to strike a blow for Red Power, the power of Native Americans united by a Pan-Indian identity and demanding federal recognition of their rights, they maintained control of the island for more than a year and a half. They claimed the land as compensation for the federal government\u2019s violation of numerous treaties and offered to pay for it with beads and trinkets. In January 1970, some of the occupiers began to leave the island. Some may have been disheartened by the accidental death of the daughter of one of the activists. In May 1970, all electricity and telephone service to the island was cut off by the federal government, and more of the occupiers began to leave. In June, the few people remaining on the island were removed by the government. Though the goals of the activists were not achieved, the occupation of Alcatraz had brought national attention to the concerns of Native American activists.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Troy R. Johnson. 1996. The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of Indian Activism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-18\" href=\"#footnote-143-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436764170\">In 1973, members of the <strong>American Indian Movement (AIM)<\/strong>, a more radical group than the occupiers of Alcatraz, temporarily took over the offices of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, DC. The following year, members of AIM and some two hundred Oglala Lakota supporters occupied the town of Wounded Knee on the Lakota tribe\u2019s Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, the site of an 1890 massacre of Lakota men, women, and children by the U.S. Army. Many of the Oglala were protesting the actions of their half-white tribal chieftain, who they claimed had worked too closely with the BIA. The occupiers also wished to protest the failure of the Justice Department to investigate acts of white violence against Lakota tribal members outside the bounds of the reservation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436869776\">The occupation led to a confrontation between the Native American protestors and the FBI and U.S. Marshals. Violence erupted; two Native American activists were killed, and a marshal was shot. After the second death, the Lakota called for an end to the occupation and negotiations began with the federal government. Two of AIM\u2019s leaders, Russell Means and Dennis Banks, were arrested, but the case against them was later dismissed.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Emily Chertoff, &quot;Occupy Wounded Knee: A 71-Day Siege and a Forgotten Civil Rights Movement,&quot; The Atlantic, 23 October 2012. http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/national\/archive\/2012\/10\/occupy-wounded-knee-a-71-day-siege-and-a-forgotten-civil-rights-movement\/263998\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-19\" href=\"#footnote-143-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a> Violence continued on the Pine Ridge Reservation for several years after the siege; the reservation had the highest per capita murder rate in the United States. Two FBI agents were among those who were killed. The Oglala blamed the continuing violence on the federal government.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-20\" href=\"#footnote-143-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"OSC_AmGov_05_04_Wknee\"><figcaption>\n<div style=\"width: 835px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"font-size: 1rem; orphans: 1; text-align: initial;\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1557\/2019\/04\/24201725\/OSC_AmGov_05_04_Wknee.jpg\" alt=\"Image A is of three people placing a wreath of flowers in front of a stone monument. Image B is of the side of a truck which is riddled with bullet holes.\" width=\"825\" height=\"445\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> A memorial stone (a) marks the spot of the mass grave of the Lakotas killed in the 1890 massacre at Wounded Knee. The bullet-riddled car (b) of FBI agent Ronald Williams reveals the level of violence reached during\u2014and for years after\u2014the 1973 occupation of the town.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div id=\"fs-id1164436854029\" class=\"american government link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>link to learning<\/h3>\n<p>The official website of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.openstax.org\/l\/29aimovement\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">American Indian Movement<\/a> provides information about ongoing issues in Native American communities in both North and South America.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436862176\">The current relationship between the U.S. government and Native American tribes was established by the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. Under the act, tribes assumed control of programs that had formerly been controlled by the BIA, such as education and resource management, and the federal government provided the funding.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Public Law 93\u2013638: Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, as Amended.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-21\" href=\"#footnote-143-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a> Many tribes have also used their new freedom from government control to legalize gambling and to open casinos on their reservations. Although the states in which these casinos are located have attempted to control gaming on Native American lands, the Supreme Court and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 have limited their ability to do so.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"W. Dale Mason. 2000. Indian Gaming: Tribal Sovereignty and American Politics. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 60\u201364.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-22\" href=\"#footnote-143-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a> The 1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act granted tribes the right to conduct traditional ceremonies and rituals, including those that use otherwise prohibited substances like peyote cactus and eagle bones, which can be procured only from vulnerable or protected species.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Public Law 95\u2013341: American Indian Religious Freedom, Joint Resolution.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-23\" href=\"#footnote-143-23\" aria-label=\"Footnote 23\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[23]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-682\">In an important recent development, several federal court cases have raised standing for Native American tribes to sue to regain former reservation lands lost to the U.S. government. If Native Americans were to gain a positive outcome in such a case, especially at the U.S. Supreme Court, it would be the most important advancement since the reapplication of the Winters Doctrine (which led to a stronger footing for tribes in water negotiations).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Winters v. United States, 207 U.S. 564 (1908).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-24\" href=\"#footnote-143-24\" aria-label=\"Footnote 24\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[24]<\/sup><\/a> Among the reservation land cases making their way through the system, <em data-effect=\"italics\">Carpenter v. Murphy<\/em>, which revolves around a murder case in Oklahoma, would perhaps be the most profound, given the history of the Trail of Tears. At issue is whether Mr. Murphy committed murder on private land in the state of Oklahoma or on the Muscogee (Creek) reservation and who should have jurisdiction over his case. If the court decides to proclaim the land as a reservation, that potentially leads to half the State of Oklahoma being designated as such. The Court heard arguments in late 2018 and will make a decision in 2019.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Adam Liptak.27 November 2018. &quot;Is Half of Oklahoma an Indian Reservation? The Supreme Court Sifts the Merits.&quot; New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/11\/27\/us\/politics\/oklahoma-indian-territory-supreme-court.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-25\" href=\"#footnote-143-25\" aria-label=\"Footnote 25\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[25]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"color: #6c64ad; font-size: 1em; font-weight: 600;\">ALASKA NATIVES AND NATIVE HAWAIIANS REGAIN SOME RIGHTS<\/span><\/h3>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1164436739842\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436870951\">Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians suffered many of the same abuses as Native Americans, including loss of land and forced assimilation. Following the discovery of oil in Alaska, however, the state, in an effort to gain undisputed title to oil rich land, settled the issue of Alaska Natives\u2019 land claims with the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971. According to the terms of the act, Alaska Natives received 44 million acres of resource-rich land and more than $900 million in cash in exchange for relinquishing claims to ancestral lands to which the state wanted title.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, &quot;Racism\u2019s Frontier: The Untold Story of Discrimination and Division in Alaska,&quot; http:\/\/www.usccr.gov\/pubs\/sac\/ak0402\/ch1.htm (April 10, 2016).\" id=\"return-footnote-143-26\" href=\"#footnote-143-26\" aria-label=\"Footnote 26\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[26]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436750172\">Native Hawaiians also lost control of their land\u2014nearly two million acres\u2014through the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893 and the subsequent formal annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States in 1898. The indigenous population rapidly decreased in number, and white settlers tried to erase all trace of traditional Hawaiian culture. Two acts passed by Congress in 1900 and 1959, when the territory was granted statehood, returned slightly more than one million acres of federally owned land to the state of Hawaii. The state was to hold it in trust and use profits from the land to improve the condition of Native Hawaiians.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ryan Mielke, &quot;Hawaiians\u2019 Years of Mistreatment,&quot; Chicago Tribune, 4 September 1999. http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-09-04\/news\/9909040141_1_hawaiians-oha-land-trust.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-27\" href=\"#footnote-143-27\" aria-label=\"Footnote 27\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[27]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436758804\">In September 2015, the U.S. Department of Interior, the same department that contains the Bureau of Indian Affairs, created guidelines for Native Hawaiians who wish to govern themselves in a relationship with the federal government similar to that established with Native American and Alaska Native tribes. Such a relationship would grant Native Hawaiians power to govern themselves while remaining U.S. citizens. Voting began in fall 2015 for delegates to a constitutional convention that would determine whether or not such a relationship should exist between Native Hawaiians and the federal government<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brittany Lyte, &quot;Historic Election Could Return Sovereignty to Native Hawaiians,&quot; Aljazeera America 30 Oct. 2015, http:\/\/america.aljazeera.com\/articles\/2015\/10\/30\/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-28\" href=\"#footnote-143-28\" aria-label=\"Footnote 28\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[28]<\/sup><\/a> When non-Native Hawaiians and some Native Hawaiians brought suit on the grounds that, by allowing only Native Hawaiians to vote, the process discriminated against members of other ethnic groups, a federal district court found the election to be legal. While the Supreme Court stopped the election, in September 2016 a separate ruling by the Interior Department allowed for a referendum to be held. Native Hawaiians in favor are working to create their own nation.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jason Daley. 28 September 2016. &quot;Rule Allows Native Hawaiians to Form Their Own Government.&quot; Smithosian.com. https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/rule-allows-native-hawaiians-form-their-own-government-180960598\/. Brittany Lyte. 5 November 2017. &quot;Native Hawaiians Again Seek Political Sovereignty with a New Constitution.&quot; Washington Post. https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/national\/native-hawaiians-again-seek-political-sovereignty-with-a-new-constitution\/2017\/11\/05\/833842d2-b905-11e7-be94-fabb0f1e9ffb_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.b456552351c1.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-29\" href=\"#footnote-143-29\" aria-label=\"Footnote 29\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[29]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1164436882541\">Despite significant advances, American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians still trail behind U.S. citizens of other ethnic backgrounds in many important areas. These groups continue to suffer widespread poverty and high unemployment. Some of the poorest counties in the United States are those in which Native American reservations are located. These minorities are also less likely than white Americans, African Americans, or Asian Americans to complete high school or college.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jens Manuel Krogstad. 13 June 2014. &quot;One-in-Four Native Americans and Alaska Natives Are Living in Poverty,&quot; http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/06\/13\/1-in-4-native-americans-and-alaska-natives-are-living-in-poverty\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-30\" href=\"#footnote-143-30\" aria-label=\"Footnote 30\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[30]<\/sup><\/a> Many American Indian and Alaskan tribes endure high rates of infant mortality, alcoholism, and suicide.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Karina L. Walters, Jane M. Simoni, and Teresa Evans-Campbell. 2002. &quot;Substance Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Incorporating Culture in an \u2018Indigenist\u2019 Stess-Coping Paradigm,&quot; Public Health Reports 117: S105.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-31\" href=\"#footnote-143-31\" aria-label=\"Footnote 31\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[31]<\/sup><\/a> Native Hawaiians are also more likely to live in poverty than whites in Hawaii, and they are more likely than white Hawaiians to be homeless or unemployed.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Kehaulani Lum, &quot;Native Hawaiians\u2019 Trail of Tears,&quot; Chicago Tribune, 24 August 1999. http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-08-24\/news\/9908240280_1_native-hawaiians-hawaiian-people-aleuts.\" id=\"return-footnote-143-32\" href=\"#footnote-143-32\" aria-label=\"Footnote 32\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[32]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1rem; text-align: initial;\">At the beginning of U.S. history, Indians were considered citizens of sovereign nations and thus ineligible for citizenship, and they were forced off their ancestral lands and onto reservations. Interest in Indian rights arose in the late nineteenth century, and in the 1930s, Native Americans were granted a degree of control over reservation lands and the right to govern themselves. Following World War II, they won greater rights to govern themselves, educate their children, decide how tribal lands should be used\u2014to build casinos, for example\u2014and practice traditional religious rituals without federal interference. Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians have faced similar difficulties, but since the 1960s, they have been somewhat successful in having lands restored to them or obtaining compensation for their loss. Despite these achievements, members of these groups still tend to be poorer, less educated, less likely to be employed, and more likely to suffer addictions or to be incarcerated than other racial and ethnic groups in the United States.<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_15821\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=15821&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_15821\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_15822\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=15822&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_15822\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_15823\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=15823&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_15823\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164436821513\">\n<dt>\n<\/dt>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164436821513\">\n<dt>American Indian Movement (AIM)<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164436721069\">the Native American civil rights group responsible for the occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in 1973<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164436745554\">\n<dt>Trail of Tears<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164436867324\">the name given to the forced migration of the Cherokees from Georgia to Oklahoma in 1838\u20131839<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-143\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>American Government 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/nY32AU8S@5.1:xJJkKaSK@5\/Preface\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/nY32AU8S@5.1:xJJkKaSK@5\/Preface<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9d8df601-4f12-4ac1-8224-b450bf739e5f@5.1<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics #31. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P-yviKu8Odo&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOfse2ncvffeelTrqvhrz8H&#038;index=31\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P-yviKu8Odo&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOfse2ncvffeelTrqvhrz8H&#038;index=31<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube license<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-143-1\">Theodore Haas. 1957. \"The Legal Aspects of Indian Affairs from 1887 to 1957,\" American Academy of Political Science 311, 12\u201322. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-2\">Elk v. Wilkins, (1884)112 U.S. 94. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-3\">See Alan Gallay. 2009. Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-4\">See James Wilson. 1998. The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America. New York: Grove Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-5\">Ibid; Gloria Jahoda. 1975. Trail of Tears: The Story of American Indian Removal, 1813\u20131855. New York: Henry Holt. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-6\">See Wilson. 1998. The Earth Shall Weep. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-7\">See John Ehle. 1988. Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday; Theda Perdue and Michael Green. 2007. The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears. New York: Penguin Books. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-8\">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-9\">Francis Paul Prucha. 1984. The Great Father: The United States Government and American Indians, vol. 1. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 212; Robert V. Remini. 2001. Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 257; Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 515 (1832). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-10\">Prucha, 241; Ehle, 390\u2013392; Russell Thornton. 1991. \"Demography of the Trail of Tears,\" In Cherokee Removal: Before and After, ed. William L. Anderson. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 75\u201393. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-11\">\u201cIndian Reservations,\u201d<a href=\"http:\/\/galeapps.galegroup.com\/apps\/auth?userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;origURL=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DUHIC%26u%3Dlnoca_hawken%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3401802046&amp;prodId=UHIC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539<\/a>\u00a0(April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-12\">Ibid. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-13\">\"Curtis Act (1898),\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.okhistory.org\/publications\/enc\/entry.php?entry=CU006\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.okhistory.org\/publications\/enc\/entry.php?entry=CU006<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-14\">See Gae Whitney Canfield. 1988. Sarah Winnemucca of the Northern Paiutes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-15\">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (P.L. 73\u2013383); \"Indian Reservations,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/galeapps.galegroup.com\/apps\/auth?userGroupName=&amp;origURL=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DUHIC%26u%3D%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3D&amp;prodId=UHIC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-16\">Daniel McCool, Susan M. Olson, and Jennifer L. Robinson. 2007. Native Vote. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 9, 19. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-17\">\"Indian Reservations,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/galeapps.galegroup.com\/apps\/auth?userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;origURL=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DUHIC%26u%3Dlnoca_hawken%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3401802046&amp;prodId=UHIC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/ic.galegroup.com\/ic\/uhic\/ReferenceDetailsPage\/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=2a87fa28f20f1e66b5f663e76873fd8c&amp;action=2&amp;catId=&amp;documentId= GALE|CX3401802046&amp;userGroupName=lnoca_hawken&amp;jsid=f44511ddfece4faafab082109e34a539<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-18\">See Troy R. Johnson. 1996. The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of Indian Activism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-19\">Emily Chertoff, \"Occupy Wounded Knee: A 71-Day Siege and a Forgotten Civil Rights Movement,\" The Atlantic, 23 October 2012. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/national\/archive\/2012\/10\/occupy-wounded-knee-a-71-day-siege-and-a-forgotten-civil-rights-movement\/263998\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/national\/archive\/2012\/10\/occupy-wounded-knee-a-71-day-siege-and-a-forgotten-civil-rights-movement\/263998\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-20\">Ibid. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-21\">Public Law 93\u2013638: Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, as Amended. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-22\">W. Dale Mason. 2000. Indian Gaming: Tribal Sovereignty and American Politics. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 60\u201364. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-23\">Public Law 95\u2013341: American Indian Religious Freedom, Joint Resolution. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-23\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 23\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-24\">Winters v. United States, 207 U.S. 564 (1908). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-24\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 24\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-25\">Adam Liptak.27 November 2018. \"Is Half of Oklahoma an Indian Reservation? The Supreme Court Sifts the Merits.\" New York Times. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/11\/27\/us\/politics\/oklahoma-indian-territory-supreme-court.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/11\/27\/us\/politics\/oklahoma-indian-territory-supreme-court.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-25\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 25\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-26\">U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, \"Racism\u2019s Frontier: The Untold Story of Discrimination and Division in Alaska,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.usccr.gov\/pubs\/sac\/ak0402\/ch1.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.usccr.gov\/pubs\/sac\/ak0402\/ch1.htm<\/a> (April 10, 2016). <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-26\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 26\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-27\">Ryan Mielke, \"Hawaiians\u2019 Years of Mistreatment,\" Chicago Tribune, 4 September 1999. <a href=\"http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-09-04\/news\/9909040141_1_hawaiians-oha-land-trust\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-09-04\/news\/9909040141_1_hawaiians-oha-land-trust<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-27\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 27\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-28\">Brittany Lyte, \"Historic Election Could Return Sovereignty to Native Hawaiians,\" Aljazeera America 30 Oct. 2015, <a href=\"http:\/\/america.aljazeera.com\/articles\/2015\/10\/30\/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/america.aljazeera.com\/articles\/2015\/10\/30\/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-28\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 28\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-29\">Jason Daley. 28 September 2016. \"Rule Allows Native Hawaiians to Form Their Own Government.\" Smithosian.com. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/rule-allows-native-hawaiians-form-their-own-government-180960598\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/rule-allows-native-hawaiians-form-their-own-government-180960598\/<\/a>. Brittany Lyte. 5 November 2017. \"Native Hawaiians Again Seek Political Sovereignty with a New Constitution.\" Washington Post. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/national\/native-hawaiians-again-seek-political-sovereignty-with-a-new-constitution\/2017\/11\/05\/833842d2-b905-11e7-be94-fabb0f1e9ffb_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.b456552351c1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/national\/native-hawaiians-again-seek-political-sovereignty-with-a-new-constitution\/2017\/11\/05\/833842d2-b905-11e7-be94-fabb0f1e9ffb_story.html?noredirect=on&amp;utm_term=.b456552351c1<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-29\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 29\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-30\">Jens Manuel Krogstad. 13 June 2014. \"One-in-Four Native Americans and Alaska Natives Are Living in Poverty,\" <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/06\/13\/1-in-4-native-americans-and-alaska-natives-are-living-in-poverty\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2014\/06\/13\/1-in-4-native-americans-and-alaska-natives-are-living-in-poverty\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-30\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 30\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-31\">Karina L. Walters, Jane M. Simoni, and Teresa Evans-Campbell. 2002. \"Substance Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Incorporating Culture in an \u2018Indigenist\u2019 Stess-Coping Paradigm,\" Public Health Reports 117: S105. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-31\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 31\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-143-32\">Kehaulani Lum, \"Native Hawaiians\u2019 Trail of Tears,\" Chicago Tribune, 24 August 1999. <a href=\"http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-08-24\/news\/9908240280_1_native-hawaiians-hawaiian-people-aleuts\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/articles.chicagotribune.com\/1999-08-24\/news\/9908240280_1_native-hawaiians-hawaiian-people-aleuts<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-143-32\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 32\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":45325,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"American Government 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/nY32AU8S@5.1:xJJkKaSK@5\/Preface\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9d8df601-4f12-4ac1-8224-b450bf739e5f@5.1\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Discrimination: Crash Course Government and Politics #31\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"CrashCourse\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=P-yviKu8Odo&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOfse2ncvffeelTrqvhrz8H&index=31\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube license\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-143","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":121,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/45325"}],"version-history":[{"count":24,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2154,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143\/revisions\/2154"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/121"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/143\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=143"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=143"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=143"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-tompkinscortland-amgovernment\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=143"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}