{"id":729,"date":"2015-06-22T19:33:59","date_gmt":"2015-06-22T19:33:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/americanyawp\/?post_type=chapter&p=729"},"modified":"2015-06-22T19:35:23","modified_gmt":"2015-06-22T19:35:23","slug":"changes-in-gender-roles-and-family-life","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-ushistory1ay\/chapter\/changes-in-gender-roles-and-family-life\/","title":{"raw":"Changes in Gender Roles and Family Life","rendered":"Changes in Gender Roles and Family Life"},"content":{"raw":"In the first half of the nineteenth century, families in the northern United States increasingly participated in the cash economy created by the market revolution. The first stirrings of industrialization shifted work away from the home. These changes transformed Americans\u2019 notions of what constituted work, and therefore shifted what it meant to be an American woman and an American man. As Americans encountered more goods in stores and produced fewer at home, the ability to remove women and children from work determined a family\u2019s class status. This ideal, of course, ignored the reality of women\u2019s work at home and was possible for only the wealthy. The market revolution therefore not only transformed the economy, it changed the nature of the American family. As the market revolution thrust workers into new systems of production, it redefined gender roles. The market integrated families into a new cash economy, and as Americans purchased more goods in stores and produced fewer at home, the activities of the domestic sphere\u2014the idealized realm of women and children\u2014increasingly signified a family\u2019s class status.\r\n\r\nWomen and children worked to supplement the low wages of many male workers. \u00a0Around age eleven or twelve, boys could take jobs as office runners or waiters, earning perhaps a dollar a week to support their parents\u2019 incomes. The ideal of an innocent and protected childhood was a privilege for middle- and upper-class families, who might look down upon poor families. Joseph Tuckerman, a Unitarian minister who served poor Bostonians, lamented the lack of discipline and regularity among poor children: \u201cAt one hour they are kept at work to procure fuel, or perform some other service; in the next are allowed to go where they will, and to do what they will.\u201d Prevented from attending school, poor children served instead as economic assets for their destitute families.\r\n\r\nMeanwhile, the education received by middle-class children provided a foundation for future economic privilege. As artisans lost control over their trades, young men had a greater incentive to invest time in education to find skilled positions later in life. Formal schooling was especially important for young men who desired apprenticeships in retail or commercial work. Enterprising instructors established schools to assist \u201cyoung gentlemen preparing for mercantile and other pursuits, who may wish for an education superior to that usually obtained in the common schools, but different from a college education, and better adapted to their particular business,\u201d such as that organized in 1820 by Warren Colburn of Boston. In response to this need, the Boston School Committee created the English High School (as opposed to the Latin School) that could \u201cgive a child an education that shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence in his profession, whether Mercantile or Mechanical\u201d beyond that \u201cwhich our public schools can now furnish.\u201d\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_507\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"625\"]\"Women<\/a> \u201cThe Sphere of Woman,\u201d Godey\u2019s Lady\u2019s Book vol. 40 (March 1850): p. 209, via University of Virginia<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEducation equipped young women with the tools to to live sophisticated, gentile lives. After sixteen-year-old Elizabeth Davis left home in 1816 to attend school, her father explained that the experience would \u201clay a foundation for your future character & respectability.\u201d After touring the United States in the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville praised the independence granted to the young American woman, who had \u201cthe great scene of the world\u2026open to her\u201d and whose education \u201carm[ed] her reason as well as her virtue.\u201d Middling young women also utilized their education to take positions as school teachers in the expanding common school system. Bristol Academy in Tauten, Maine, for instance, advertised \u201cinstruction\u2026in the art of teaching\u201d for female pupils. In 1825, Nancy Denison left Concord Academy with references indicating that she was \u201cqualified to teach with success and profit\u201d and \u201cvery cheerfully recommend[ed]\u201d for \u201cthat very responsible employment.\u201d\r\n\r\nAs middle-class youths found opportunities for respectable employment through formal education, poor youths remained in marginalized positions. Their families\u2019 desperate financial state kept them from enjoying the fruits of education. When pauper children did receive teaching through institutions such the House of Refuge in New York City, they were often simultaneously indentured to successful families to serve as field hands or domestic laborers. The Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents in New York City sent its wards to places like Sylvester Lusk\u2019s farm in Enfield, Connecticut. Lusk took boys to learn \u201cthe trade and mystery of farming\u201d and girls to learn \u201cthe trade and mystery of housewifery.\u201d In exchange for \u201csufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging, and Washing, fitting for an Apprentice,\u201d and a rudimentary education, the apprentices promised obedience, morality, and loyalty. Poor children also found work in factories such as Samuel Slater\u2019s textile mills in southern New England. Slater published a newspaper advertisement for \u201cfour or five active Lads, about 15 Years of Age to serve as Apprentices in the Cotton Factory.\u201d\r\n\r\nAnd so, during the early-nineteenth century, opportunities for education and employment often depended on a given family\u2019s class. In colonial America, nearly all children worked within their parent\u2019s chosen profession, whether it be agricultural or artisanal. During the market revolution, however, more children were able to postpone employment. Americans aspired to provide a Romantic Childhood\u2014<\/span>a period in which boys and girls were sheltered within the home and nurtured through primary schooling. This ideal was available to families that could survive without their children\u2019s labor. And as such sheltered boys and girls matured, their early experiences often determined whether they entered respectable, well-paying positions or remained as dependent workers with little prospects for social mobility.\r\n

Just as children were expected to be sheltered from the adult world of work, American culture expected men and women to assume distinct gender roles as they prepared for marriage and family life. An ideology of \u201cseparate spheres\u201d set the public realm\u2014the world of economic production and political life\u2014apart as a male domain, and the world of consumers and domestic life as a female one. (Even non-working women labored by shopping for the household, producing food and clothing, cleaning, educating children, and performing similar activities. But these were considered \u201cdomestic\u201d because they did not bring money into the household, although they too were essential to the household\u2019s economic viability.) While reality muddied the ideal, the divide between a private, female world of home and a public, male world of business defined American gender hierarchy.<\/p>\r\nThe idea of separate spheres also displayed a distinct class bias. Middle- and upper-classes reinforced their status by shielding \u201ctheir\u201d women from the harsh realities of wage labor. Women were to be mothers and educators, not partners in production. But lower-class women continued to contribute directly to the household economy. The middle- and upper-class ideal was only feasible in households where women did not need to engage in paid labor. In poorer households, women engaged in wage labor as factory workers, piece-workers producing items for market consumption, tavern and inn keepers, and domestic servants. While many of the fundamental tasks women performed remained the same\u2014producing clothing, cultivating vegetables, overseeing dairy production, and performing any number of other domestic labors\u2014the key difference was whether and when they performed these tasks for cash in a market economy.\r\n\r\nDomestic expectations constantly changed and the market revolution transformed many women\u2019s traditional domestic tasks. Cloth production, for instance, advanced throughout the market revolution as new mechanized production increased the volume and variety of fabrics available to ordinary people. This relieved many better-off women of a traditional labor obligation. As cloth production became commercialized, women\u2019s home-based cloth production became less important to household economies. Purchasing cloth, and later, ready-made clothes, began to transform women from producers to consumers. One woman from Maine, Martha Ballard, regularly referenced spinning, weaving, and knitting in the diary she kept from 1785 to 1812. Martha, her daughters, and female neighbors spun and plied linen and woolen yarns and used them to produce a variety of fabrics to make clothing for her family. The production of cloth and clothing was a year-round, labor-intensive process, but it was for home consumption, not commercial markets.\r\n\r\nIn cities, where women could buy cheap imported cloth to turn into clothing, they became skilled consumers. They stewarded their husbands\u2019 money by comparing values and haggling over prices. In one typical experience, Mrs. Peter Simon, a captain\u2019s wife, inspected twenty-six yards of Holland cloth to ensure it was worth the \u00a3130 price. Even wealthy women shopped for high-value goods. While servants or slaves routinely made low-value purchases, the mistress of the household trusted her discriminating eye alone for expensive or specific purchases.\r\n\r\nWomen might also parlay their feminine skills into businesses. In addition to working as seamstresses, milliners, or laundresses, women might undertake paid work for neighbors or acquaintances or combine clothing production with management of a boarding house. Even slaves with particular skill at producing clothing could be hired out for a higher price, or might even negotiate to work part-time for themselves. Most slaves, however, continued to produce domestic items, including simpler cloths and clothing, for home consumption.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_194\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1484\"]\"A<\/a> Thomas Horner, \"Broadway, New York,\" 1836.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSimilar domestic expectations played out in the slave states. Enslaved women labored in the fields. Whites argued that African American women were less delicate and womanly than white women and therefore perfectly suited for agricultural labor. The southern ideal meanwhile established that white plantation mistresses were shielded from manual labor because of their very whiteness. Throughout the slave states, however, aside from the minority of plantations with dozens of slates, the majority of white women by necessity continued to assist with planting, harvesting, and processing agricultural projects despite the cultural stigma attached to it. White southerners continued to produce large portions of their food and clothing at home. Even when they were market-oriented producers of cash crops, white southerners still insisted that their adherence to plantation slavery and racial hierarchy made them morally superior to greedy Northerners and their callous, cutthroat commerce. Southerners and northerners increasingly saw their ways of life as incompatible.\r\n\r\nWhile the market revolution remade many women\u2019s economic roles, their legal status remained essentially unchanged. Upon marriage, women were rendered legally dead by the notion of coverture, the custom that counted married couples as a single unit represented by the husband. Without special precautions or interventions, women could not earn their own money, own their own property, sue, or be sued. Any money earned or spent belonged by law to their husbands. Women shopped on their husbands\u2019 credit and at any time husbands could terminate their wives\u2019 access to their credit. Although a handful of states made divorce available\u2014divorce had before only been legal in Congregationalist states such as Massachusetts and Connecticut, where marriage was strictly a civil contract, rather than a religious one\u2014it remained extremely expensive, difficult, and rare. Marriage was typically a permanently binding legal contract.\r\n\r\nIdeas of marriage, if not the legal realities, began to change. This period marked the beginning of the shift from \u201cinstitutional\u201d to \u201ccompanionate\u201d marriage. Institutional marriages were primarily labor arrangements that maximized the couple\u2019s and their children\u2019s chances of surviving and thriving. Men and women assessed each other\u2019s skills as they related to household production, although looks and personality certainly entered into the equation. But in the late-eighteenth century, under the influence by Enlightenment thought, young people began to privilege character and compatibility in their potential partners. Money was still essential: marriages prompted the largest redistributions of property prior to the settling of estates at death. But the means of this redistribution was changing. Especially in the North, land became a less important foundation for matchmaking as wealthy young men became not only farmers and merchants but bankers, clerks, or professionals. The increased emphasis on affection and attraction that young people embraced was facilitated by an increasingly complex economy that offered new ways to store, move, and create wealth, which liberalized the criteria by which families evaluated potential in-laws.\r\n\r\nTo be considered a success in family life, a middle-class American man typically aspired to own a comfortable home and to marry a woman of strong morals and religious conviction who would take responsibility for raising virtuous, well-behaved children. The duties of the middle-class husband and wife would be clearly delineated into separate spheres. The husband alone was responsible for creating wealth and engaging in the commerce and politics\u2014the public sphere. The wife was responsible for the private\u2014keeping a good home, being careful with household expenses, raising children, and inculcating them with the middle-class virtues that would ensure their future success. But for poor families, sacrificing the potential economic contributions of wives and children was an impossibility.","rendered":"

In the first half of the nineteenth century, families in the northern United States increasingly participated in the cash economy created by the market revolution. The first stirrings of industrialization shifted work away from the home. These changes transformed Americans\u2019 notions of what constituted work, and therefore shifted what it meant to be an American woman and an American man. As Americans encountered more goods in stores and produced fewer at home, the ability to remove women and children from work determined a family\u2019s class status. This ideal, of course, ignored the reality of women\u2019s work at home and was possible for only the wealthy. The market revolution therefore not only transformed the economy, it changed the nature of the American family. As the market revolution thrust workers into new systems of production, it redefined gender roles. The market integrated families into a new cash economy, and as Americans purchased more goods in stores and produced fewer at home, the activities of the domestic sphere\u2014the idealized realm of women and children\u2014increasingly signified a family\u2019s class status.<\/p>\n

Women and children worked to supplement the low wages of many male workers. \u00a0Around age eleven or twelve, boys could take jobs as office runners or waiters, earning perhaps a dollar a week to support their parents\u2019 incomes. The ideal of an innocent and protected childhood was a privilege for middle- and upper-class families, who might look down upon poor families. Joseph Tuckerman, a Unitarian minister who served poor Bostonians, lamented the lack of discipline and regularity among poor children: \u201cAt one hour they are kept at work to procure fuel, or perform some other service; in the next are allowed to go where they will, and to do what they will.\u201d Prevented from attending school, poor children served instead as economic assets for their destitute families.<\/p>\n

Meanwhile, the education received by middle-class children provided a foundation for future economic privilege. As artisans lost control over their trades, young men had a greater incentive to invest time in education to find skilled positions later in life. Formal schooling was especially important for young men who desired apprenticeships in retail or commercial work. Enterprising instructors established schools to assist \u201cyoung gentlemen preparing for mercantile and other pursuits, who may wish for an education superior to that usually obtained in the common schools, but different from a college education, and better adapted to their particular business,\u201d such as that organized in 1820 by Warren Colburn of Boston. In response to this need, the Boston School Committee created the English High School (as opposed to the Latin School) that could \u201cgive a child an education that shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence in his profession, whether Mercantile or Mechanical\u201d beyond that \u201cwhich our public schools can now furnish.\u201d<\/p>\n

\"Women<\/a><\/p>\n

\u201cThe Sphere of Woman,\u201d Godey\u2019s Lady\u2019s Book vol. 40 (March 1850): p. 209, via University of Virginia<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Education equipped young women with the tools to to live sophisticated, gentile lives. After sixteen-year-old Elizabeth Davis left home in 1816 to attend school, her father explained that the experience would \u201clay a foundation for your future character & respectability.\u201d After touring the United States in the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville praised the independence granted to the young American woman, who had \u201cthe great scene of the world\u2026open to her\u201d and whose education \u201carm[ed] her reason as well as her virtue.\u201d Middling young women also utilized their education to take positions as school teachers in the expanding common school system. Bristol Academy in Tauten, Maine, for instance, advertised \u201cinstruction\u2026in the art of teaching\u201d for female pupils. In 1825, Nancy Denison left Concord Academy with references indicating that she was \u201cqualified to teach with success and profit\u201d and \u201cvery cheerfully recommend[ed]\u201d for \u201cthat very responsible employment.\u201d<\/p>\n

As middle-class youths found opportunities for respectable employment through formal education, poor youths remained in marginalized positions. Their families\u2019 desperate financial state kept them from enjoying the fruits of education. When pauper children did receive teaching through institutions such the House of Refuge in New York City, they were often simultaneously indentured to successful families to serve as field hands or domestic laborers. The Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents in New York City sent its wards to places like Sylvester Lusk\u2019s farm in Enfield, Connecticut. Lusk took boys to learn \u201cthe trade and mystery of farming\u201d and girls to learn \u201cthe trade and mystery of housewifery.\u201d In exchange for \u201csufficient Meat, Drink, Apparel, Lodging, and Washing, fitting for an Apprentice,\u201d and a rudimentary education, the apprentices promised obedience, morality, and loyalty. Poor children also found work in factories such as Samuel Slater\u2019s textile mills in southern New England. Slater published a newspaper advertisement for \u201cfour or five active Lads, about 15 Years of Age to serve as Apprentices in the Cotton Factory.\u201d<\/p>\n

And so, during the early-nineteenth century, opportunities for education and employment often depended on a given family\u2019s class. In colonial America, nearly all children worked within their parent\u2019s chosen profession, whether it be agricultural or artisanal. During the market revolution, however, more children were able to postpone employment. Americans aspired to provide a Romantic Childhood\u2014<\/span>a period in which boys and girls were sheltered within the home and nurtured through primary schooling. This ideal was available to families that could survive without their children\u2019s labor. And as such sheltered boys and girls matured, their early experiences often determined whether they entered respectable, well-paying positions or remained as dependent workers with little prospects for social mobility.<\/p>\n

Just as children were expected to be sheltered from the adult world of work, American culture expected men and women to assume distinct gender roles as they prepared for marriage and family life. An ideology of \u201cseparate spheres\u201d set the public realm\u2014the world of economic production and political life\u2014apart as a male domain, and the world of consumers and domestic life as a female one. (Even non-working women labored by shopping for the household, producing food and clothing, cleaning, educating children, and performing similar activities. But these were considered \u201cdomestic\u201d because they did not bring money into the household, although they too were essential to the household\u2019s economic viability.) While reality muddied the ideal, the divide between a private, female world of home and a public, male world of business defined American gender hierarchy.<\/p>\n

The idea of separate spheres also displayed a distinct class bias. Middle- and upper-classes reinforced their status by shielding \u201ctheir\u201d women from the harsh realities of wage labor. Women were to be mothers and educators, not partners in production. But lower-class women continued to contribute directly to the household economy. The middle- and upper-class ideal was only feasible in households where women did not need to engage in paid labor. In poorer households, women engaged in wage labor as factory workers, piece-workers producing items for market consumption, tavern and inn keepers, and domestic servants. While many of the fundamental tasks women performed remained the same\u2014producing clothing, cultivating vegetables, overseeing dairy production, and performing any number of other domestic labors\u2014the key difference was whether and when they performed these tasks for cash in a market economy.<\/p>\n

Domestic expectations constantly changed and the market revolution transformed many women\u2019s traditional domestic tasks. Cloth production, for instance, advanced throughout the market revolution as new mechanized production increased the volume and variety of fabrics available to ordinary people. This relieved many better-off women of a traditional labor obligation. As cloth production became commercialized, women\u2019s home-based cloth production became less important to household economies. Purchasing cloth, and later, ready-made clothes, began to transform women from producers to consumers. One woman from Maine, Martha Ballard, regularly referenced spinning, weaving, and knitting in the diary she kept from 1785 to 1812. Martha, her daughters, and female neighbors spun and plied linen and woolen yarns and used them to produce a variety of fabrics to make clothing for her family. The production of cloth and clothing was a year-round, labor-intensive process, but it was for home consumption, not commercial markets.<\/p>\n

In cities, where women could buy cheap imported cloth to turn into clothing, they became skilled consumers. They stewarded their husbands\u2019 money by comparing values and haggling over prices. In one typical experience, Mrs. Peter Simon, a captain\u2019s wife, inspected twenty-six yards of Holland cloth to ensure it was worth the \u00a3130 price. Even wealthy women shopped for high-value goods. While servants or slaves routinely made low-value purchases, the mistress of the household trusted her discriminating eye alone for expensive or specific purchases.<\/p>\n

Women might also parlay their feminine skills into businesses. In addition to working as seamstresses, milliners, or laundresses, women might undertake paid work for neighbors or acquaintances or combine clothing production with management of a boarding house. Even slaves with particular skill at producing clothing could be hired out for a higher price, or might even negotiate to work part-time for themselves. Most slaves, however, continued to produce domestic items, including simpler cloths and clothing, for home consumption.<\/p>\n

\"A<\/a><\/p>\n

Thomas Horner, “Broadway, New York,” 1836.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Similar domestic expectations played out in the slave states. Enslaved women labored in the fields. Whites argued that African American women were less delicate and womanly than white women and therefore perfectly suited for agricultural labor. The southern ideal meanwhile established that white plantation mistresses were shielded from manual labor because of their very whiteness. Throughout the slave states, however, aside from the minority of plantations with dozens of slates, the majority of white women by necessity continued to assist with planting, harvesting, and processing agricultural projects despite the cultural stigma attached to it. White southerners continued to produce large portions of their food and clothing at home. Even when they were market-oriented producers of cash crops, white southerners still insisted that their adherence to plantation slavery and racial hierarchy made them morally superior to greedy Northerners and their callous, cutthroat commerce. Southerners and northerners increasingly saw their ways of life as incompatible.<\/p>\n

While the market revolution remade many women\u2019s economic roles, their legal status remained essentially unchanged. Upon marriage, women were rendered legally dead by the notion of coverture, the custom that counted married couples as a single unit represented by the husband. Without special precautions or interventions, women could not earn their own money, own their own property, sue, or be sued. Any money earned or spent belonged by law to their husbands. Women shopped on their husbands\u2019 credit and at any time husbands could terminate their wives\u2019 access to their credit. Although a handful of states made divorce available\u2014divorce had before only been legal in Congregationalist states such as Massachusetts and Connecticut, where marriage was strictly a civil contract, rather than a religious one\u2014it remained extremely expensive, difficult, and rare. Marriage was typically a permanently binding legal contract.<\/p>\n

Ideas of marriage, if not the legal realities, began to change. This period marked the beginning of the shift from \u201cinstitutional\u201d to \u201ccompanionate\u201d marriage. Institutional marriages were primarily labor arrangements that maximized the couple\u2019s and their children\u2019s chances of surviving and thriving. Men and women assessed each other\u2019s skills as they related to household production, although looks and personality certainly entered into the equation. But in the late-eighteenth century, under the influence by Enlightenment thought, young people began to privilege character and compatibility in their potential partners. Money was still essential: marriages prompted the largest redistributions of property prior to the settling of estates at death. But the means of this redistribution was changing. Especially in the North, land became a less important foundation for matchmaking as wealthy young men became not only farmers and merchants but bankers, clerks, or professionals. The increased emphasis on affection and attraction that young people embraced was facilitated by an increasingly complex economy that offered new ways to store, move, and create wealth, which liberalized the criteria by which families evaluated potential in-laws.<\/p>\n

To be considered a success in family life, a middle-class American man typically aspired to own a comfortable home and to marry a woman of strong morals and religious conviction who would take responsibility for raising virtuous, well-behaved children. The duties of the middle-class husband and wife would be clearly delineated into separate spheres. The husband alone was responsible for creating wealth and engaging in the commerce and politics\u2014the public sphere. The wife was responsible for the private\u2014keeping a good home, being careful with household expenses, raising children, and inculcating them with the middle-class virtues that would ensure their future success. But for poor families, sacrificing the potential economic contributions of wives and children was an impossibility.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t

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