{"id":4425,"date":"2017-07-31T17:41:32","date_gmt":"2017-07-31T17:41:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=4425"},"modified":"2017-09-28T14:08:52","modified_gmt":"2017-09-28T14:08:52","slug":"35-1-4-chairman-mao-and-the-peoples-republic","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/chapter\/35-1-4-chairman-mao-and-the-peoples-republic\/","title":{"raw":"Chairman Mao and the People's Republic","rendered":"Chairman Mao and the People&#8217;s Republic"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"concept_1511\">35.1.4: Chairman Mao and the People's Republic<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"brief\">\r\n\r\nMaoism, the guiding political and military ideology of the Community Party of China, claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\r\nDiscuss the key beliefs of the Communist Party of China and Chairman Mao\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Marxist\u00a0ideas started to spread in China after the 1919 May Fourth Movement. The Communist Party of China was initially founded by Chen Duxiu\u00a0and Li Dazhao\u00a0in the French concession\u00a0of Shanghai\u00a0in 1921 as a study society and an informal network. The Party's 1st Congress was held in Shanghai and attended by 12 men in July 1921 and later transferred from Shanghai\u00a0to Jiaxing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In 1922, a proposal that party members join the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party), on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success, was accepted. Under the guidance of the Comintern, the party was reorganized along Leninist\u00a0lines in 1923 in preparation for the Northern Expedition. Mikhail Markovich Borodin of the Comintern negotiated with Kuomitang's Sun Yat-sen\u00a0and Wang Jingwei to implement the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CPC\u2019s incorporation into the newly expanded party.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In 1927, as the Northern Expedition approached Shanghai, the Kuomintang leadership split. The Left Kuomintang at Wuhan kept the alliance with the Communists while Chiang Kai-shek at Nanking grew increasingly anti-communist. Chiang Kai-shek launched a successful campaign, and the CPC had to give up their bases and started the Long March (1934\u20131935) to search for a new base. During the Long March, local\u00a0Communists, such as Mao Zedong and Zhu De, gained power while the Comintern and the Soviet Union lost control over the CPC.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the Kuomintang and the Communists. With the Kuomintang's defeat, Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mao's revolution that founded the PRC was nominally based on Marxism-Leninism with a rural focus. During the 1960s and 1970s, the CPC experienced a significant ideological breakdown with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and their allies. The essential difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism is that Mao claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China, because contrary to industrial workers they were more suited to establish a successful revolution and socialist society in China.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Maoism was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the CPC. It evolved together with Chairman Mao's changing views, but its main components are: the New Democracy, People's war, Mass line, Cultural revolution, Three Worlds theory, and agrarian socialism.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\r\n<dl class=\"key_terms\">\r\n \t<dt><strong>Northern Expedition<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A 1926-1928 military campaign, led by Chiang Kai-shek. Its main objective was to unify China, ending the rule of the Beiyang government\u00a0and that of local warlords. It led to the end of the Warlord Era, the reunification of China\u00a0in 1928, and the establishment of the Nanjing government.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Soviet Republic of China<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>\"A state within a state,\" referred often in historical sources as the Jiangxi Soviet, established in November 1931 by future Communist Party of China\u00a0leader Mao Zedong, General Zhu De, and others, that\u00a0lasted until 1937. Mao Zedong was both its state chairman and prime minister. It was eventually destroyed by the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT)'s National Revolutionary Army\u00a0in a series of 1934 encirclement campaigns.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Kuomintang<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A major political party in the Republic of China, currently the second-largest in the country, often translated as the Nationalist Party of China\u00a0or Chinese Nationalist Party. Its predecessor, the Revolutionary Alliance, was one of the major advocates of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republic. The party was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Maoism<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A political\u00a0theory derived from the teachings of Chinese\u00a0political leader Mao Zedong\u00a0(1893\u20131976). Developed from the 1950s until the Deng Xiaoping\u00a0reforms in the 1970s, it was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the Communist Party of China\u00a0(CPC) and as theory guiding revolutionary movements around the world.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Long March<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A military retreat undertaken by the Red Army\u00a0of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party) army. The Communists, under the eventual command of Mao Zedong\u00a0and Zhou Enlai, escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed more than 9,000 kilometers (5,600 miles) over 370 days. The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west then north to Shaanxi.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>May Fourth Movement<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>An anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student participants in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting against the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially allowing Japan to receive territories in Shandong\u00a0which was surrendered by Germany\u00a0after the Siege of Tsingtao.<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1>The Chinese Communist Party: History<\/h1>\r\nMarxist\u00a0ideas started to spread in China after the 1919 May Fourth Movement, an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement protesting against the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles. In June 1920, Comintern\u00a0agent Grigori Voitinsky\u00a0was sent to China, where he financed the founding of the Socialist Youth Corps. The Communist Party of China was initially founded by Chen Duxiu\u00a0and Li Dazhao\u00a0in the French concession\u00a0of Shanghai\u00a0in 1921 as a study society and network. There were informal groups in China in 1920 and overseas, but the official beginning was the 1st Congress held in Shanghai and attended by 12 men in July 1921 and later transferred from Shanghai\u00a0to Jiaxing. The formal and unified name, the Chinese Communist Party, was adopted, and all other names of communist groups were dropped. \u00a0 Mao Zedong\u00a0was present at the first congress as one of two delegates from a Hunan communist group.\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"340\"]<img class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195137\/media_35114_medium.jpeg\" alt=\" In 1920, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu (?) met Comintern agent Grigori Voitinsky (author unknown).\" width=\"340\" height=\"256\" \/> In 1920, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu (?) met Comintern agent Grigori Voitinsky (author unknown).:\u00a0 The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party\u00a0of the People's Republic of China\u00a0(PRC). The CPC is the sole governing party of China, although it coexists alongside eight other legal parties that comprise the United Front. These parties, however, hold no real power or independence from the CPC. It was founded in 1921 by Chen Duxiu\u00a0and Li Dazhao.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__document\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"image_35114_text_equivalent\" class=\"atom__components__figure__text_equivalent\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn 1922, at a surprise special plenum of the central committee, a proposal that party members join the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party), on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success, was issued. Although some leaders opposed the motion, the CPC accepted the decision. Under the guidance of the Comintern, the party was reorganized along Leninist\u00a0lines in 1923 in preparation for the Northern Expedition. Mikhail Markovich Borodin of the Comintern negotiated with Kuomitang's Sun Yat-sen\u00a0and Wang Jingwei to implement the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CPC\u2019s incorporation into the newly expanded party. The death of Sun Yat-sen\u00a0in 1925 created uncertainty about who would lead the party and whether they would still work with the Communists. Despite these tensions, the Northern Expedition\u00a0(1926\u20131927), led by Kuomintang and supported by the CPC, quickly overthrew the warlord government.\r\n\r\nIn 1927, as the Northern Expedition approached Shanghai, the Kuomintang leadership split. The Left Kuomintang at Wuhan kept the alliance with the Communists while Chiang Kai-shek at Nanking grew increasingly anti-communist. As Chiang Kai-shek consolidated his power, various revolts continued and Communist armed forces created a number of \"Soviet Areas.\" The largest of these was led by Zhu De and Mao Zedong, who established the Soviet Republic of China in remote areas through peasant riots. Chiang Kai-shek launched a further successful campaign, and the CPC had to give up their bases and started the Long March (1934\u20131935) to search for a new base. During the Long March, local\u00a0Communists, such as Mao Zedong and Zhu De, gained power while the Comintern and the Soviet Union lost control over the CPC.\r\n\r\nIn eight years, CPC membership increased from 40,000 to 1.2 million and its military forces from 30,000 to approximately one million, in addition to more than a million militia support groups. After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the Kuomintang and the Communists. With the Kuomintang's defeat, Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949.\r\n<h1>Maoism<\/h1>\r\nThe CPC's ideologies have significantly evolved since it established political power in 1949. Mao's revolution that founded the PRC was nominally based on Marxism-Leninism with a rural focus (based on China's social situations at the time). During the 1960s and 1970s, the CPC experienced a significant ideological breakdown with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and their allies. Since then, Mao's peasant revolutionary vision and so-called \"continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat\" stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, giving way to the Cultural revolution. This fusion of ideas became known officially as Mao Zedong Thought or Maoism outside of China. It represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the Soviet Union's Marxist revisionism.\r\n\r\nThe essential difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism is that Mao claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China because they were more suited than industrial workers to establish a successful revolution and socialist society in China. Maoism was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the CPC. It evolved with Chairman Mao's changing views, but its main components are:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The New Democracy aims to overthrow feudalism and achieve independence from colonialism. However, it dispenses with the rule predicted by Marx and Lenin that a capitalist class would usually follow such a struggle, claiming instead to enter directly into socialism through a coalition of classes fighting the old ruling order. The original symbolism of the flag of China derives from the concept of the coalition. The largest star symbolizes the Communist Party of China's leadership and the surrounding four smaller stars symbolize \"the bloc of four classes\": proletarian workers, peasants, the petty bourgeoisie (small business owners), and the nationally-based capitalists. This is the coalition of classes for Mao's New Democratic Revolution.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>People's war: Holding that \"Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun,\" Maoism emphasizes the \"revolutionary struggle of the vast majority of people against the exploiting classes and their state structures,\" which Mao termed \"People's war.\" Mobilizing large parts of rural populations to revolt against established institutions by engaging in guerrilla warfare, Maoism focuses on \"surrounding the cities from the countryside.\" It views the industrial-rural divide as a major division exploited by capitalism, involving industrial urban developed \"First World\" societies ruling over rural developing \"Third World\" societies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mass line: This theory holds, contrary to the Leninist vanguard model employed by the Bolsheviks, that party must not be separate from the popular masses, either in policy or in revolutionary struggle. To conduct a successful revolution the needs and demands of the masses must be paramount.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cultural revolution: This theory states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat does not wipe out bourgeois ideology. The class struggle continues, and even intensifies, during socialism. Therefore, a constant struggle against these ideologies and their social roots must be conducted. The revolution's stated goal was to preserve \"true\" Communist ideology\u00a0in the country by purging remnants of capitalist\u00a0and traditional\u00a0elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Maoist\u00a0thought as the dominant ideology\u00a0within the Party. The concept was applied in practice in 1966, which marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward (a 1958-1961 failed economic and social campaign aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy\u00a0into a socialist\u00a0society through rapid industrialization\u00a0and collectivization). The movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the country's economy and society to a significant degree.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Three Worlds: This theory states that during the Cold War, two imperialist states formed the First World: the United States and the Soviet Union. The Second World consisted of the other imperialist states in their spheres of influence. The Third World consisted of the non-imperialist countries. Both the First and the Second World exploit the Third World, but the First World more aggressively.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Agrarian socialism: Maoism departs from conventional European-inspired Marxism in that its focus is on the agrarian countryside rather than the industrial urban forces. This is known as agrarian socialism. Although Maoism is critical of urban industrial capitalist powers, it views urban industrialization as a prerequisite to expand economic development and socialist reorganization to the countryside, with the goal of rural industrialization that would abolish the distinction between town and countryside.\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"340\"]<img class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195139\/media_35113_medium.jpeg\" alt=\" Portrait of Mao Zedong at Tiananmen Gate attributed to Zhang Zhenshi\u00a0(1914\u20131992). \" width=\"340\" height=\"450\" \/> Portrait of Mao Zedong at Tiananmen Gate attributed to Zhang Zhenshi\u00a0(1914\u20131992).: Mao Zedong, known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist\u00a0revolutionary and founding father\u00a0of the People's Republic of China, which he ruled as an autocrat Chairman of the Communist Party of China\u00a0from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His Marxist-Leninist\u00a0theories, military strategies, and political policies are collectively known as Maoism\u00a0or Marxism-Leninism-Maoism.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nFollowing the death of Mao Zedong\u00a0in 1976, the CPC under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping\u00a0moved towards <em>Socialism with Chinese characteristics<\/em>\u00a0and instituted Chinese economic reform. In reversing some of Mao's \"extreme-leftist\" policies, Deng argued that a socialist country and the market economy\u00a0model were not mutually exclusive.\r\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chairman Mao and the People's Republic\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Communist Party of China.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communist_Party_of_China\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communist_Party_of_China<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Great Leap Forward.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Northern Expedition.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Northern_Expedition\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Northern_Expedition<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"May Fourth Movement.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/May_Fourth_Movement\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/May_Fourth_Movement<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"New Democracy.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Democracy\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Democracy<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Mao Zedong.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Maoism.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maoism\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maoism<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"History of the Communist Party of China.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Cultural Revolution.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Chinese Soviet Republic.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_Soviet_Republic\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_Soviet_Republic<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Long March.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_March\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_March<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Kuomintang.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kuomintang\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kuomintang<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong#\/media\/File:Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong#\/media\/File:Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Li_Dazhao_n_comintern_G.N._Voitrngsky.jpg.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China#\/media\/File:Li_Dazhao_n_comintern_G.N._Voitrngsky.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China#\/media\/File:Li_Dazhao_n_comintern_G.N._Voitrngsky.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"concept_1511\">35.1.4: Chairman Mao and the People&#8217;s Republic<\/h2>\n<div class=\"brief\">\n<p>Maoism, the guiding political and military ideology of the Community Party of China, claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\n<p>Discuss the key beliefs of the Communist Party of China and Chairman Mao<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Marxist\u00a0ideas started to spread in China after the 1919 May Fourth Movement. The Communist Party of China was initially founded by Chen Duxiu\u00a0and Li Dazhao\u00a0in the French concession\u00a0of Shanghai\u00a0in 1921 as a study society and an informal network. The Party&#8217;s 1st Congress was held in Shanghai and attended by 12 men in July 1921 and later transferred from Shanghai\u00a0to Jiaxing.<\/li>\n<li>In 1922, a proposal that party members join the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party), on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success, was accepted. Under the guidance of the Comintern, the party was reorganized along Leninist\u00a0lines in 1923 in preparation for the Northern Expedition. Mikhail Markovich Borodin of the Comintern negotiated with Kuomitang&#8217;s Sun Yat-sen\u00a0and Wang Jingwei to implement the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CPC\u2019s incorporation into the newly expanded party.<\/li>\n<li>In 1927, as the Northern Expedition approached Shanghai, the Kuomintang leadership split. The Left Kuomintang at Wuhan kept the alliance with the Communists while Chiang Kai-shek at Nanking grew increasingly anti-communist. Chiang Kai-shek launched a successful campaign, and the CPC had to give up their bases and started the Long March (1934\u20131935) to search for a new base. During the Long March, local\u00a0Communists, such as Mao Zedong and Zhu De, gained power while the Comintern and the Soviet Union lost control over the CPC.<\/li>\n<li>After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the Kuomintang and the Communists. With the Kuomintang&#8217;s defeat, Mao Zedong established the People&#8217;s Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949.<\/li>\n<li>Mao&#8217;s revolution that founded the PRC was nominally based on Marxism-Leninism with a rural focus. During the 1960s and 1970s, the CPC experienced a significant ideological breakdown with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and their allies. The essential difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism is that Mao claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China, because contrary to industrial workers they were more suited to establish a successful revolution and socialist society in China.<\/li>\n<li>Maoism was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the CPC. It evolved together with Chairman Mao&#8217;s changing views, but its main components are: the New Democracy, People&#8217;s war, Mass line, Cultural revolution, Three Worlds theory, and agrarian socialism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\n<dl class=\"key_terms\">\n<dt><strong>Northern Expedition<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A 1926-1928 military campaign, led by Chiang Kai-shek. Its main objective was to unify China, ending the rule of the Beiyang government\u00a0and that of local warlords. It led to the end of the Warlord Era, the reunification of China\u00a0in 1928, and the establishment of the Nanjing government.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Soviet Republic of China<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>&#8220;A state within a state,&#8221; referred often in historical sources as the Jiangxi Soviet, established in November 1931 by future Communist Party of China\u00a0leader Mao Zedong, General Zhu De, and others, that\u00a0lasted until 1937. Mao Zedong was both its state chairman and prime minister. It was eventually destroyed by the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT)&#8217;s National Revolutionary Army\u00a0in a series of 1934 encirclement campaigns.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Kuomintang<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A major political party in the Republic of China, currently the second-largest in the country, often translated as the Nationalist Party of China\u00a0or Chinese Nationalist Party. Its predecessor, the Revolutionary Alliance, was one of the major advocates of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republic. The party was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Maoism<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A political\u00a0theory derived from the teachings of Chinese\u00a0political leader Mao Zedong\u00a0(1893\u20131976). Developed from the 1950s until the Deng Xiaoping\u00a0reforms in the 1970s, it was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the Communist Party of China\u00a0(CPC) and as theory guiding revolutionary movements around the world.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Long March<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A military retreat undertaken by the Red Army\u00a0of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People&#8217;s Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party) army. The Communists, under the eventual command of Mao Zedong\u00a0and Zhou Enlai, escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed more than 9,000 kilometers (5,600 miles) over 370 days. The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west then north to Shaanxi.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>May Fourth Movement<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>An anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student participants in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting against the Chinese government&#8217;s weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially allowing Japan to receive territories in Shandong\u00a0which was surrendered by Germany\u00a0after the Siege of Tsingtao.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>The Chinese Communist Party: History<\/h1>\n<p>Marxist\u00a0ideas started to spread in China after the 1919 May Fourth Movement, an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement protesting against the Chinese government&#8217;s weak response to the Treaty of Versailles. In June 1920, Comintern\u00a0agent Grigori Voitinsky\u00a0was sent to China, where he financed the founding of the Socialist Youth Corps. The Communist Party of China was initially founded by Chen Duxiu\u00a0and Li Dazhao\u00a0in the French concession\u00a0of Shanghai\u00a0in 1921 as a study society and network. There were informal groups in China in 1920 and overseas, but the official beginning was the 1st Congress held in Shanghai and attended by 12 men in July 1921 and later transferred from Shanghai\u00a0to Jiaxing. The formal and unified name, the Chinese Communist Party, was adopted, and all other names of communist groups were dropped. \u00a0 Mao Zedong\u00a0was present at the first congress as one of two delegates from a Hunan communist group.<\/p>\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n<div style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195137\/media_35114_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"In 1920, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu (?) met Comintern agent Grigori Voitinsky (author unknown).\" width=\"340\" height=\"256\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">In 1920, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu (?) met Comintern agent Grigori Voitinsky (author unknown).:\u00a0 The Communist Party of China is the founding and ruling political party\u00a0of the People&#8217;s Republic of China\u00a0(PRC). The CPC is the sole governing party of China, although it coexists alongside eight other legal parties that comprise the United Front. These parties, however, hold no real power or independence from the CPC. It was founded in 1921 by Chen Duxiu\u00a0and Li Dazhao.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"atom__components__document\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"image_35114_text_equivalent\" class=\"atom__components__figure__text_equivalent\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>In 1922, at a surprise special plenum of the central committee, a proposal that party members join the Kuomintang\u00a0(KMT, or Chinese Nationalist Party), on the grounds that it was easier to transform the Nationalist Party from the inside than to duplicate its success, was issued. Although some leaders opposed the motion, the CPC accepted the decision. Under the guidance of the Comintern, the party was reorganized along Leninist\u00a0lines in 1923 in preparation for the Northern Expedition. Mikhail Markovich Borodin of the Comintern negotiated with Kuomitang&#8217;s Sun Yat-sen\u00a0and Wang Jingwei to implement the 1923 KMT reorganization and the CPC\u2019s incorporation into the newly expanded party. The death of Sun Yat-sen\u00a0in 1925 created uncertainty about who would lead the party and whether they would still work with the Communists. Despite these tensions, the Northern Expedition\u00a0(1926\u20131927), led by Kuomintang and supported by the CPC, quickly overthrew the warlord government.<\/p>\n<p>In 1927, as the Northern Expedition approached Shanghai, the Kuomintang leadership split. The Left Kuomintang at Wuhan kept the alliance with the Communists while Chiang Kai-shek at Nanking grew increasingly anti-communist. As Chiang Kai-shek consolidated his power, various revolts continued and Communist armed forces created a number of &#8220;Soviet Areas.&#8221; The largest of these was led by Zhu De and Mao Zedong, who established the Soviet Republic of China in remote areas through peasant riots. Chiang Kai-shek launched a further successful campaign, and the CPC had to give up their bases and started the Long March (1934\u20131935) to search for a new base. During the Long March, local\u00a0Communists, such as Mao Zedong and Zhu De, gained power while the Comintern and the Soviet Union lost control over the CPC.<\/p>\n<p>In eight years, CPC membership increased from 40,000 to 1.2 million and its military forces from 30,000 to approximately one million, in addition to more than a million militia support groups. After the conclusion of World War II, the civil war resumed between the Kuomintang and the Communists. With the Kuomintang&#8217;s defeat, Mao Zedong established the People&#8217;s Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949.<\/p>\n<h1>Maoism<\/h1>\n<p>The CPC&#8217;s ideologies have significantly evolved since it established political power in 1949. Mao&#8217;s revolution that founded the PRC was nominally based on Marxism-Leninism with a rural focus (based on China&#8217;s social situations at the time). During the 1960s and 1970s, the CPC experienced a significant ideological breakdown with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and their allies. Since then, Mao&#8217;s peasant revolutionary vision and so-called &#8220;continued revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat&#8221; stipulated that class enemies continued to exist even though the socialist revolution seemed to be complete, giving way to the Cultural revolution. This fusion of ideas became known officially as Mao Zedong Thought or Maoism outside of China. It represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the Soviet Union&#8217;s Marxist revisionism.<\/p>\n<p>The essential difference between Maoism and other forms of Marxism is that Mao claimed that peasants should be the essential revolutionary class in China because they were more suited than industrial workers to establish a successful revolution and socialist society in China. Maoism was widely applied as the guiding political and military ideology of the CPC. It evolved with Chairman Mao&#8217;s changing views, but its main components are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The New Democracy aims to overthrow feudalism and achieve independence from colonialism. However, it dispenses with the rule predicted by Marx and Lenin that a capitalist class would usually follow such a struggle, claiming instead to enter directly into socialism through a coalition of classes fighting the old ruling order. The original symbolism of the flag of China derives from the concept of the coalition. The largest star symbolizes the Communist Party of China&#8217;s leadership and the surrounding four smaller stars symbolize &#8220;the bloc of four classes&#8221;: proletarian workers, peasants, the petty bourgeoisie (small business owners), and the nationally-based capitalists. This is the coalition of classes for Mao&#8217;s New Democratic Revolution.<\/li>\n<li>People&#8217;s war: Holding that &#8220;Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun,&#8221; Maoism emphasizes the &#8220;revolutionary struggle of the vast majority of people against the exploiting classes and their state structures,&#8221; which Mao termed &#8220;People&#8217;s war.&#8221; Mobilizing large parts of rural populations to revolt against established institutions by engaging in guerrilla warfare, Maoism focuses on &#8220;surrounding the cities from the countryside.&#8221; It views the industrial-rural divide as a major division exploited by capitalism, involving industrial urban developed &#8220;First World&#8221; societies ruling over rural developing &#8220;Third World&#8221; societies.<\/li>\n<li>Mass line: This theory holds, contrary to the Leninist vanguard model employed by the Bolsheviks, that party must not be separate from the popular masses, either in policy or in revolutionary struggle. To conduct a successful revolution the needs and demands of the masses must be paramount.<\/li>\n<li>Cultural revolution: This theory states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat does not wipe out bourgeois ideology. The class struggle continues, and even intensifies, during socialism. Therefore, a constant struggle against these ideologies and their social roots must be conducted. The revolution&#8217;s stated goal was to preserve &#8220;true&#8221; Communist ideology\u00a0in the country by purging remnants of capitalist\u00a0and traditional\u00a0elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Maoist\u00a0thought as the dominant ideology\u00a0within the Party. The concept was applied in practice in 1966, which marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of power after the Great Leap Forward (a 1958-1961 failed economic and social campaign aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy\u00a0into a socialist\u00a0society through rapid industrialization\u00a0and collectivization). The movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected the country&#8217;s economy and society to a significant degree.<\/li>\n<li>Three Worlds: This theory states that during the Cold War, two imperialist states formed the First World: the United States and the Soviet Union. The Second World consisted of the other imperialist states in their spheres of influence. The Third World consisted of the non-imperialist countries. Both the First and the Second World exploit the Third World, but the First World more aggressively.<\/li>\n<li>Agrarian socialism: Maoism departs from conventional European-inspired Marxism in that its focus is on the agrarian countryside rather than the industrial urban forces. This is known as agrarian socialism. Although Maoism is critical of urban industrial capitalist powers, it views urban industrialization as a prerequisite to expand economic development and socialist reorganization to the countryside, with the goal of rural industrialization that would abolish the distinction between town and countryside.<br \/>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n<div style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195139\/media_35113_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"Portrait of Mao Zedong at Tiananmen Gate attributed to Zhang Zhenshi\u00a0(1914\u20131992).\" width=\"340\" height=\"450\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Mao Zedong at Tiananmen Gate attributed to Zhang Zhenshi\u00a0(1914\u20131992).: Mao Zedong, known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist\u00a0revolutionary and founding father\u00a0of the People&#8217;s Republic of China, which he ruled as an autocrat Chairman of the Communist Party of China\u00a0from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His Marxist-Leninist\u00a0theories, military strategies, and political policies are collectively known as Maoism\u00a0or Marxism-Leninism-Maoism.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Following the death of Mao Zedong\u00a0in 1976, the CPC under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping\u00a0moved towards <em>Socialism with Chinese characteristics<\/em>\u00a0and instituted Chinese economic reform. In reversing some of Mao&#8217;s &#8220;extreme-leftist&#8221; policies, Deng argued that a socialist country and the market economy\u00a0model were not mutually exclusive.<\/p>\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Chairman Mao and the People&#8217;s Republic\n<ul>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Communist Party of China.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communist_Party_of_China\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communist_Party_of_China<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Great Leap Forward.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Northern Expedition.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Northern_Expedition\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Northern_Expedition<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;May Fourth Movement.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/May_Fourth_Movement\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/May_Fourth_Movement<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;New Democracy.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Democracy\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Democracy<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Mao Zedong.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Maoism.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maoism\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maoism<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;History of the Communist Party of China.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Cultural Revolution.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Chinese Soviet Republic.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_Soviet_Republic\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_Soviet_Republic<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Long March.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_March\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_March<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Kuomintang.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kuomintang\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kuomintang<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong#\/media\/File:Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mao_Zedong#\/media\/File:Mao_Zedong_portrait.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Li_Dazhao_n_comintern_G.N._Voitrngsky.jpg.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China#\/media\/File:Li_Dazhao_n_comintern_G.N._Voitrngsky.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China#\/media\/File:Li_Dazhao_n_comintern_G.N._Voitrngsky.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4425\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Boundless World History. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Boundless. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":23437,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Boundless World History\",\"author\":\"Boundless\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4425","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3225,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4425","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/23437"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4425\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5739,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4425\/revisions\/5739"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3225"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4425\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4425"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4425"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4425"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4425"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}