{"id":4429,"date":"2017-07-31T17:44:51","date_gmt":"2017-07-31T17:44:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=4429"},"modified":"2017-09-28T14:12:14","modified_gmt":"2017-09-28T14:12:14","slug":"35-1-6-the-sino-soviet-split","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/chapter\/35-1-6-the-sino-soviet-split\/","title":{"raw":"The Sino-Soviet Split","rendered":"The Sino-Soviet Split"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"concept_1513\">35.1.6: The Sino-Soviet Split<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"brief\">\r\n\r\nThe Sino-Soviet split\u00a0was the deterioration and eventual breakup of political and ideological relations between China\u00a0and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, which had massive domestic and geopolitical consequences.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\r\nDiscuss why the Soviet Union and the People's Republic broke their relations and the consequences of the split\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Mao and his supporters argued that traditional Marxism was rooted in industrialized European society and could not be applied to Asian peasant societies. However, although Mao continued to develop his own thought based on that presumption, in the 1950s, Soviet-guided China followed Stalin's model of centralized economic development.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>After Stalin\u2019s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev made an effort to further the burgeoning relations with China begun by Stalin, traveling to the country and making various deals with the Chinese leadership that expanded the economic and political alliances between the two countries. The 1953-56 period has been called the \u201cgolden age\u201d of Sino-Soviet relations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Relations between the USSR and the PRC began to deteriorate in 1956 after Khrushchev revealed his \u201cSecret Speech\u201d at the 20th Communist Party Congress. The \u201cSecret Speech\u201d criticized many of Stalin\u2019s policies, especially his purges of Party members, and marked the beginning of Khrushchev\u2019s de-Stalinization process. This created a serious domestic problem for Mao, who had supported many of Stalin\u2019s policies and modeled many of his own after them.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At first, the Sino-Soviet split manifested indirectly as criticism towards each other's client states. By 1960, the mutual criticism became public when Khrushchev and Peng Zhen had an open argument at the Romanian Communist Party congress.After a series of unconvincing compromises and explicitly hostile gestures, in 1962, the PRC and the USSR finally broke relations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The split, seen by historians as one of the key events of the Cold War, had massive consequences for the two powers and for the world. The USSR had a network of communist parties it supported. China now created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries. Mao launched the Cultural Revolution\u00a0(1966\u201376), largely to prevent the development of Russian-style bureaucratic communism of the USSR. The ideological\u00a0split also escalated to small-scale warfare between Russia and China.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>After the regime of Mao Zedong, the PRC\u2013USSR ideological schism no longer shaped domestic politics but continued to impact geopolitics, including such global developments as the establishment of post-colonial Indochina, the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1975\u201379) that deposed Pol Pot in 1978, the Sino-Vietnamese War (1979), and the 1979 invasion of the USSR on Afghanistan. Relations between China and the Soviet Union remained tense until the visit of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to Beijing in 1989.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\r\n<dl class=\"key_terms\">\r\n \t<dt><strong>Cultural Revolution<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A sociopolitical movement\u00a0that took place in China\u00a0from 1966 until 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to preserve 'true' Communist ideology\u00a0in the country by purging remnants of capitalist\u00a0and traditional\u00a0elements from Chinese society and reimposing Maoist\u00a0thought as the dominant ideology\u00a0within the Party. The movement paralyzed China politically and had significant negative effects on economy and society.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Hundred Flowers Campaign<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A period in 1956 in the People's Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China\u00a0(CPC) encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime. Differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong: \"The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science.\" After this brief period of liberalization, Mao abruptly changed course.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Khrushchev\u2019s \u201cSecret Speech\u201d<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A report by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev\u00a0made to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\u00a0on February 25, 1956. Khrushchev was sharply critical of the reign of deceased General Secretary and Premier Joseph Stalin, particularly with respect to the purges\u00a0which marked the late 1930s.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Five Year Plan<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A nationwide centralized economic plan\u00a0in the Soviet Union developed by a state planning committee\u00a0that was part of the ideology\u00a0of the Communist Party\u00a0for the development\u00a0of the Soviet economy. A series of these plans was developed in the Soviet Union while similar Soviet-inspired plans emerged across other communist countries during the Cold War era.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Great Leap Forward<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>An economic and social campaign by the Communist Party of China\u00a0(CPC) that took place from 1958 to 1961 and was led by Mao Zedong. It aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy\u00a0into a socialist\u00a0society through rapid industrialization\u00a0and collectivization. It is widely considered to have caused the Great Chinese Famine.<\/dd>\r\n \t<dt><strong>Cuban missile crisis<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t<dd>A 13-day (October 16\u201328, 1962) confrontation between the United States\u00a0and the Soviet Union\u00a0concerning American ballistic missile\u00a0deployment in Italy\u00a0and Turkey\u00a0with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. The confrontation, elements of which were televised, was the closest the Cold War\u00a0came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1>Background: Mao and Joseph Stalin<\/h1>\r\nDuring both the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937\u201345) against the Japanese Empire and the ongoing Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist Kuomintang, Mao Zedong ignored much of the politico-military advice and direction from Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin and the Comintern because of the practical difficulty in applying traditional Leninist revolutionary theory to China. After World War II, Stalin advised Mao against seizing power because the Soviet Union had signed a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with the Nationalists in 1945. This time, Mao obeyed Stalin's advice, calling him \"the only leader of our party.\" However, Stalin broke the treaty, requiring Soviet withdrawal from Manchuria three months after Japan's surrender, and gave Manchuria to Mao. After the CPC's victory over the KMT, a Moscow visit by Mao from December 1949 to February 1950 culminated in the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1950), which included a $300 million low-interest loan and a 30-year military alliance clause.\r\n\r\nHowever, Mao and his supporters argued that traditional Marxism was rooted in industrialized European society and could not be applied to Asian peasant societies. Although Mao continued to develop his own thought based on that presumption, in the 1950s, Soviet-guided China followed the Soviet model of centralized economic development, emphasizing heavy industry and not treating consumer goods as a priority. Simultaneously, by the late 1950s, Mao had developed ideas that became the basis for the Great Leap Forward (1958\u201361), a campaign based on the assumption of the centrality of the rural working class to China's economy and political system.\r\n<h1>Communism after Stalin's Death<\/h1>\r\nAfter Stalin\u2019s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev made an effort to further the burgeoning relations with China begun by Stalin, traveling to the country in 1954 and making deals with the Chinese leadership that expanded the economic and political alliances between the two countries. Khrushchev also acknowledged Stalin\u2019s unfair trade deals and revealed a list of active KGB agents placed in China during Stalin\u2019s reign. Khrushchev was able to reach many prominent economic agreements during his visit, including an additional loan for economic development from the USSR to the PRC and a trade of human capital that included sending Soviet economic experts and political advisors to China and Chinese economic experts and unskilled labor to the USSR.\r\n\r\nIn 1955, relations only continued to improve. Economic trade collaboration began to develop to the point that 60% of Chinese exports were to the USSR. Mao also began to implement the Chinese but USSR-modeled Five Year Plan. Mao also promoted and encouraged the collectivization of agriculture in the PRC, applauding Stalin\u2019s policies towards agriculture and industrialization. Finally, the two countries collaborated when setting their respective foreign policies. This period, from roughly Stalin\u2019s death in 1953 to Khrushchev\u2019s \u201cSecret Speech\u201d in 1956, \u00a0has been called the \u201cgolden age\u201d of Sino-Soviet relations.\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"340\"]<img class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195143\/media_35117_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Nikita Khrushchev: publicly, international allies; privately, ideological enemies. (China,1958, author unknown). \" width=\"340\" height=\"239\" \/> Photograph of Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Nikita Khrushchev: publicly, international allies; privately, ideological enemies. (China,1958, author unknown).: Although before 1956 Mao and Khrushchev managed to sign numerous agreements between China and the Soviet Union, the two leaders did not develop a positive personal relationship. Mao found Khrushchev\u2019s personality grating and Khrushchev was unimpressed by Chinese culture.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>The Sino-Soviet Split<\/h1>\r\nRelations between the USSR and the PRC began to deteriorate in 1956 after Khrushchev revealed his \u201cSecret Speech\u201d at the 20th Communist Party Congress. The \u201cSecret Speech\u201d criticized many of Stalin\u2019s policies, especially his purges of Party members, and marked the beginning of Khrushchev\u2019s de-Stalinization process. This created a serious domestic problem for Mao, who had supported many of Stalin\u2019s policies and modeled many of his own after them.\u00a0With Khrushchev\u2019s denouncement of Stalin, many people questioned Mao\u2019s decisions. Moreover, the emergence of movements fighting for the reforms of the existing communist systems across East-Central Europe after Khrushchev\u2019s speech worried Mao. Brief political liberalization introduced to prevent similar movements in China, most notably lessened political censorship known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign, backfired against Mao, whose position within the Party only weakened. This convinced him further that de-Stalinization was a mistake. Mao took a sharp turn to the left ideologically, which contrasted with the ideological softening of de-Stalinization. With Khrushchev\u2019s strengthening position as Soviet leader, the two countries were set on two different ideological paths.\r\n\r\nMao\u2019s implementation of the Great Leap Forward, which utilized communist policies closer to Stalin than to Khrushchev, including forming a personality cult around Mao as well as more Stalinist economic policies. This angered the USSR, especially after Mao criticized Khrushchev\u2019s economic policies through the plan while also calling for more Soviet aid. The Soviet leader saw the new policies as evidence of an increasingly confrontational and unpredictable China.\r\n\r\nAt first, the Sino-Soviet split manifested indirectly as criticism towards each other's client states. China denounced Yugoslavia and Tito, who pursued a non-aligned\u00a0foreign policy, while the USSR denounced Enver Hoxha\u00a0and the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, which refused to abandon its pro-Stalin stance and sought its survival in alignment with China. The USSR also offered moral support to the Tibetan rebels in their 1959 Tibetan uprising\u00a0against China. By 1960, the mutual criticism moved out in the open, when Khrushchev and Peng Zhen had an open argument at the Romanian Communist Party congress. Khrushchev characterized Mao as \"a nationalist, an adventurist, and a deviationist.\" In turn, China's Peng Zhen called Khrushchev a Marxist revisionist, criticizing him as \"patriarchal, arbitrary and tyrannical.\" Khrushchev denounced China with an 80-page letter to the conference and responded to Mao by withdrawing around 1,400 Soviet experts and technicians from China, leading to the cancellation of more than 200 scientific projects intended to foster cooperation between the two nations.\r\n\r\nAfter a series of unconvincing compromises and explicitly hostile gestures, in 1962, the PRC and the USSR finally broke relations. Mao criticized Khrushchev for withdrawing from the Cuban missile crisis (1962). Khrushchev replied angrily that Mao's confrontational policies would lead to a nuclear war. In the wake of the Cuban missile crisis, nuclear disarmament was brought to the forefront of geopolitics. To curb the production of nuclear weapons in other nations, the Soviet Union, Britain, and the U.S. signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. At the time, China was developing its own nuclear weaponry and Mao saw the treaty as an attempt to slow China's advancement as a superpower. This was the final straw for Mao, who from September 1963 to July 1964 published nine letters openly criticizing every aspect of Khrushchev\u2019s leadership.\r\n\r\nThe Sino-Soviet alliance now completely collapsed and Mao turned to other Asian, African, and Latin American countries to develop new and stronger alliances and further the PRC\u2019s economic and ideological redevelopment.\r\n<h1>Consequences<\/h1>\r\nThe split, seen by historians as one of the key events of the Cold War, had massive consequences for the two powers and for the world. The USSR had a network of communist parties it supported. China created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries. The divide fractured the international communist movement at the time and opened the way for the warming of relations between the U.S. and China under Richard Nixon and Mao in 1971.\r\n\r\nIn China, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution\u00a0(1966\u201376), largely to prevent the development of Russian-style bureaucratic communism of the USSR. The ideological\u00a0split also escalated to small-scale warfare between Russia and China, with a revived conflict over the Russo-Chinese border demarcated in the 19th century (starting in 1966) and Red Guards\u00a0attacking the Soviet embassy in Beijing (1967). In the 1970s, Sino-Soviet ideological rivalry extended to Africa\u00a0and the Middle East, where the Soviet Union and China funded and supported opposed political parties, militias, and states.\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\r\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"340\"]<img class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195144\/media_35118_medium.jpeg\" alt=\" The disputed Argun and Amur river areas; the Damansky\u2013Zhenbao is southeast, north of the lake. (March 2 \u2013 September 11, 1969). Source:\u00a0Perry-Casta\u00f1eda Library Map Collection. \" width=\"340\" height=\"422\" \/> The disputed Argun and Amur river areas; the Damansky\u2013Zhenbao is southeast, north of the lake. (March 2 \u2013 September 11, 1969). Source:\u00a0Perry-Casta\u00f1eda Library Map Collection. By March 1969, Sino-Russian border politics became the Sino-Soviet border conflict\u00a0at the Ussuri River\u00a0and on Damansky\u2013Zhenbao Island, with more small-scale warfare occurring at Tielieketi\u00a0in August.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAfter the regime of Mao Zedong, the PRC\u2013USSR ideological schism no longer shaped domestic politics but continued to impact geopolitics. The initial Soviet-Chinese proxy war occurred in Indochina in 1975, where the Communist victory of the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) and of North Vietnam in the 30-year Vietnam War had produced a post\u2013colonial Indochina that featured pro-Soviet regimes in Vietnam (Socialist Republic of Vietnam) and Laos (Lao People's Democratic Republic), and a pro-Chinese regime in Cambodia (Democratic Kampuchea). At first, Vietnam ignored the Khmer Rouge domestic reorganization of Cambodia by the Pol Pot regime (1975\u201379) as an internal matter, until the Khmer Rouge attacked the ethnic Vietnamese populace of Cambodia and the border with Vietnam. The counter-attack precipitated the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1975\u201379) that deposed Pol Pot in 1978. In response, the PRC denounced the Vietnamese and retaliated by invading northern Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese War (1979). In turn, the USSR denounced the PRC's invasion of Vietnam. In 1979, the USSR invaded the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan to sustain the Afghan Communist government. The PRC viewed the Soviet invasion as a local feint within Soviet's greater geopolitical encirclement of China. In response, the PRC entered a tripartite alliance with the U.S. and Pakistan to sponsor Islamist Afghan armed resistance to the Soviet occupation (1979\u201389).\r\n\r\nRelations between China and the Soviet Union remained tense until the visit of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to Beijing in 1989.\r\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The Sino-Soviet Split\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Cuban Missile Crisis.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cuban_Missile_Crisis\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cuban_Missile_Crisis<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Great Leap Forward.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Hundred Flowers Campaign.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Sino-Soviet split.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Cultural Revolution .\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Mao_Ts\u00e9-toung_portrait_en_buste_assis_faisant_face_\u00e0_Nikita_Khrouchtchev_pendant_la_visite_du_chef_russe_1958_\u00e0_P\u00e9kin.jpg.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:Mao_Ts%C3%A9-toung,_portrait_en_buste,_assis,_faisant_face_%C3%A0_Nikita_Khrouchtchev,_pendant_la_visite_du_chef_russe_1958_%C3%A0_P%C3%A9kin.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:Mao_Ts%C3%A9-toung,_portrait_en_buste,_assis,_faisant_face_%C3%A0_Nikita_Khrouchtchev,_pendant_la_visite_du_chef_russe_1958_%C3%A0_P%C3%A9kin.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"800px-China_USSR_E_88.jpg.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:China_USSR_E_88.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:China_USSR_E_88.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"concept_1513\">35.1.6: The Sino-Soviet Split<\/h2>\n<div class=\"brief\">\n<p>The Sino-Soviet split\u00a0was the deterioration and eventual breakup of political and ideological relations between China\u00a0and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, which had massive domestic and geopolitical consequences.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\n<p>Discuss why the Soviet Union and the People&#8217;s Republic broke their relations and the consequences of the split<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Mao and his supporters argued that traditional Marxism was rooted in industrialized European society and could not be applied to Asian peasant societies. However, although Mao continued to develop his own thought based on that presumption, in the 1950s, Soviet-guided China followed Stalin&#8217;s model of centralized economic development.<\/li>\n<li>After Stalin\u2019s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev made an effort to further the burgeoning relations with China begun by Stalin, traveling to the country and making various deals with the Chinese leadership that expanded the economic and political alliances between the two countries. The 1953-56 period has been called the \u201cgolden age\u201d of Sino-Soviet relations.<\/li>\n<li>Relations between the USSR and the PRC began to deteriorate in 1956 after Khrushchev revealed his \u201cSecret Speech\u201d at the 20th Communist Party Congress. The \u201cSecret Speech\u201d criticized many of Stalin\u2019s policies, especially his purges of Party members, and marked the beginning of Khrushchev\u2019s de-Stalinization process. This created a serious domestic problem for Mao, who had supported many of Stalin\u2019s policies and modeled many of his own after them.<\/li>\n<li>At first, the Sino-Soviet split manifested indirectly as criticism towards each other&#8217;s client states. By 1960, the mutual criticism became public when Khrushchev and Peng Zhen had an open argument at the Romanian Communist Party congress.After a series of unconvincing compromises and explicitly hostile gestures, in 1962, the PRC and the USSR finally broke relations.<\/li>\n<li>The split, seen by historians as one of the key events of the Cold War, had massive consequences for the two powers and for the world. The USSR had a network of communist parties it supported. China now created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries. Mao launched the Cultural Revolution\u00a0(1966\u201376), largely to prevent the development of Russian-style bureaucratic communism of the USSR. The ideological\u00a0split also escalated to small-scale warfare between Russia and China.<\/li>\n<li>After the regime of Mao Zedong, the PRC\u2013USSR ideological schism no longer shaped domestic politics but continued to impact geopolitics, including such global developments as the establishment of post-colonial Indochina, the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1975\u201379) that deposed Pol Pot in 1978, the Sino-Vietnamese War (1979), and the 1979 invasion of the USSR on Afghanistan. Relations between China and the Soviet Union remained tense until the visit of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to Beijing in 1989.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\n<dl class=\"key_terms\">\n<dt><strong>Cultural Revolution<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A sociopolitical movement\u00a0that took place in China\u00a0from 1966 until 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to preserve &#8216;true&#8217; Communist ideology\u00a0in the country by purging remnants of capitalist\u00a0and traditional\u00a0elements from Chinese society and reimposing Maoist\u00a0thought as the dominant ideology\u00a0within the Party. The movement paralyzed China politically and had significant negative effects on economy and society.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Hundred Flowers Campaign<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A period in 1956 in the People&#8217;s Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China\u00a0(CPC) encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime. Differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong: &#8220;The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science.&#8221; After this brief period of liberalization, Mao abruptly changed course.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Khrushchev\u2019s \u201cSecret Speech\u201d<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A report by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev\u00a0made to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\u00a0on February 25, 1956. Khrushchev was sharply critical of the reign of deceased General Secretary and Premier Joseph Stalin, particularly with respect to the purges\u00a0which marked the late 1930s.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Five Year Plan<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A nationwide centralized economic plan\u00a0in the Soviet Union developed by a state planning committee\u00a0that was part of the ideology\u00a0of the Communist Party\u00a0for the development\u00a0of the Soviet economy. A series of these plans was developed in the Soviet Union while similar Soviet-inspired plans emerged across other communist countries during the Cold War era.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Great Leap Forward<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>An economic and social campaign by the Communist Party of China\u00a0(CPC) that took place from 1958 to 1961 and was led by Mao Zedong. It aimed to rapidly transform the country from an agrarian economy\u00a0into a socialist\u00a0society through rapid industrialization\u00a0and collectivization. It is widely considered to have caused the Great Chinese Famine.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Cuban missile crisis<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A 13-day (October 16\u201328, 1962) confrontation between the United States\u00a0and the Soviet Union\u00a0concerning American ballistic missile\u00a0deployment in Italy\u00a0and Turkey\u00a0with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. The confrontation, elements of which were televised, was the closest the Cold War\u00a0came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Background: Mao and Joseph Stalin<\/h1>\n<p>During both the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937\u201345) against the Japanese Empire and the ongoing Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist Kuomintang, Mao Zedong ignored much of the politico-military advice and direction from Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin and the Comintern because of the practical difficulty in applying traditional Leninist revolutionary theory to China. After World War II, Stalin advised Mao against seizing power because the Soviet Union had signed a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with the Nationalists in 1945. This time, Mao obeyed Stalin&#8217;s advice, calling him &#8220;the only leader of our party.&#8221; However, Stalin broke the treaty, requiring Soviet withdrawal from Manchuria three months after Japan&#8217;s surrender, and gave Manchuria to Mao. After the CPC&#8217;s victory over the KMT, a Moscow visit by Mao from December 1949 to February 1950 culminated in the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1950), which included a $300 million low-interest loan and a 30-year military alliance clause.<\/p>\n<p>However, Mao and his supporters argued that traditional Marxism was rooted in industrialized European society and could not be applied to Asian peasant societies. Although Mao continued to develop his own thought based on that presumption, in the 1950s, Soviet-guided China followed the Soviet model of centralized economic development, emphasizing heavy industry and not treating consumer goods as a priority. Simultaneously, by the late 1950s, Mao had developed ideas that became the basis for the Great Leap Forward (1958\u201361), a campaign based on the assumption of the centrality of the rural working class to China&#8217;s economy and political system.<\/p>\n<h1>Communism after Stalin&#8217;s Death<\/h1>\n<p>After Stalin\u2019s death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev made an effort to further the burgeoning relations with China begun by Stalin, traveling to the country in 1954 and making deals with the Chinese leadership that expanded the economic and political alliances between the two countries. Khrushchev also acknowledged Stalin\u2019s unfair trade deals and revealed a list of active KGB agents placed in China during Stalin\u2019s reign. Khrushchev was able to reach many prominent economic agreements during his visit, including an additional loan for economic development from the USSR to the PRC and a trade of human capital that included sending Soviet economic experts and political advisors to China and Chinese economic experts and unskilled labor to the USSR.<\/p>\n<p>In 1955, relations only continued to improve. Economic trade collaboration began to develop to the point that 60% of Chinese exports were to the USSR. Mao also began to implement the Chinese but USSR-modeled Five Year Plan. Mao also promoted and encouraged the collectivization of agriculture in the PRC, applauding Stalin\u2019s policies towards agriculture and industrialization. Finally, the two countries collaborated when setting their respective foreign policies. This period, from roughly Stalin\u2019s death in 1953 to Khrushchev\u2019s \u201cSecret Speech\u201d in 1956, \u00a0has been called the \u201cgolden age\u201d of Sino-Soviet relations.<\/p>\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n<div style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195143\/media_35117_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Nikita Khrushchev: publicly, international allies; privately, ideological enemies. (China,1958, author unknown).\" width=\"340\" height=\"239\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photograph of Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Nikita Khrushchev: publicly, international allies; privately, ideological enemies. (China,1958, author unknown).: Although before 1956 Mao and Khrushchev managed to sign numerous agreements between China and the Soviet Union, the two leaders did not develop a positive personal relationship. Mao found Khrushchev\u2019s personality grating and Khrushchev was unimpressed by Chinese culture.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>The Sino-Soviet Split<\/h1>\n<p>Relations between the USSR and the PRC began to deteriorate in 1956 after Khrushchev revealed his \u201cSecret Speech\u201d at the 20th Communist Party Congress. The \u201cSecret Speech\u201d criticized many of Stalin\u2019s policies, especially his purges of Party members, and marked the beginning of Khrushchev\u2019s de-Stalinization process. This created a serious domestic problem for Mao, who had supported many of Stalin\u2019s policies and modeled many of his own after them.\u00a0With Khrushchev\u2019s denouncement of Stalin, many people questioned Mao\u2019s decisions. Moreover, the emergence of movements fighting for the reforms of the existing communist systems across East-Central Europe after Khrushchev\u2019s speech worried Mao. Brief political liberalization introduced to prevent similar movements in China, most notably lessened political censorship known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign, backfired against Mao, whose position within the Party only weakened. This convinced him further that de-Stalinization was a mistake. Mao took a sharp turn to the left ideologically, which contrasted with the ideological softening of de-Stalinization. With Khrushchev\u2019s strengthening position as Soviet leader, the two countries were set on two different ideological paths.<\/p>\n<p>Mao\u2019s implementation of the Great Leap Forward, which utilized communist policies closer to Stalin than to Khrushchev, including forming a personality cult around Mao as well as more Stalinist economic policies. This angered the USSR, especially after Mao criticized Khrushchev\u2019s economic policies through the plan while also calling for more Soviet aid. The Soviet leader saw the new policies as evidence of an increasingly confrontational and unpredictable China.<\/p>\n<p>At first, the Sino-Soviet split manifested indirectly as criticism towards each other&#8217;s client states. China denounced Yugoslavia and Tito, who pursued a non-aligned\u00a0foreign policy, while the USSR denounced Enver Hoxha\u00a0and the People&#8217;s Socialist Republic of Albania, which refused to abandon its pro-Stalin stance and sought its survival in alignment with China. The USSR also offered moral support to the Tibetan rebels in their 1959 Tibetan uprising\u00a0against China. By 1960, the mutual criticism moved out in the open, when Khrushchev and Peng Zhen had an open argument at the Romanian Communist Party congress. Khrushchev characterized Mao as &#8220;a nationalist, an adventurist, and a deviationist.&#8221; In turn, China&#8217;s Peng Zhen called Khrushchev a Marxist revisionist, criticizing him as &#8220;patriarchal, arbitrary and tyrannical.&#8221; Khrushchev denounced China with an 80-page letter to the conference and responded to Mao by withdrawing around 1,400 Soviet experts and technicians from China, leading to the cancellation of more than 200 scientific projects intended to foster cooperation between the two nations.<\/p>\n<p>After a series of unconvincing compromises and explicitly hostile gestures, in 1962, the PRC and the USSR finally broke relations. Mao criticized Khrushchev for withdrawing from the Cuban missile crisis (1962). Khrushchev replied angrily that Mao&#8217;s confrontational policies would lead to a nuclear war. In the wake of the Cuban missile crisis, nuclear disarmament was brought to the forefront of geopolitics. To curb the production of nuclear weapons in other nations, the Soviet Union, Britain, and the U.S. signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. At the time, China was developing its own nuclear weaponry and Mao saw the treaty as an attempt to slow China&#8217;s advancement as a superpower. This was the final straw for Mao, who from September 1963 to July 1964 published nine letters openly criticizing every aspect of Khrushchev\u2019s leadership.<\/p>\n<p>The Sino-Soviet alliance now completely collapsed and Mao turned to other Asian, African, and Latin American countries to develop new and stronger alliances and further the PRC\u2019s economic and ideological redevelopment.<\/p>\n<h1>Consequences<\/h1>\n<p>The split, seen by historians as one of the key events of the Cold War, had massive consequences for the two powers and for the world. The USSR had a network of communist parties it supported. China created its own rival network to battle it out for local control of the left in numerous countries. The divide fractured the international communist movement at the time and opened the way for the warming of relations between the U.S. and China under Richard Nixon and Mao in 1971.<\/p>\n<p>In China, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution\u00a0(1966\u201376), largely to prevent the development of Russian-style bureaucratic communism of the USSR. The ideological\u00a0split also escalated to small-scale warfare between Russia and China, with a revived conflict over the Russo-Chinese border demarcated in the 19th century (starting in 1966) and Red Guards\u00a0attacking the Soviet embassy in Beijing (1967). In the 1970s, Sino-Soviet ideological rivalry extended to Africa\u00a0and the Middle East, where the Soviet Union and China funded and supported opposed political parties, militias, and states.<\/p>\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n<div style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1599\/2017\/07\/18195144\/media_35118_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"The disputed Argun and Amur river areas; the Damansky\u2013Zhenbao is southeast, north of the lake. (March 2 \u2013 September 11, 1969). Source:\u00a0Perry-Casta\u00f1eda Library Map Collection.\" width=\"340\" height=\"422\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">The disputed Argun and Amur river areas; the Damansky\u2013Zhenbao is southeast, north of the lake. (March 2 \u2013 September 11, 1969). Source:\u00a0Perry-Casta\u00f1eda Library Map Collection. By March 1969, Sino-Russian border politics became the Sino-Soviet border conflict\u00a0at the Ussuri River\u00a0and on Damansky\u2013Zhenbao Island, with more small-scale warfare occurring at Tielieketi\u00a0in August.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>After the regime of Mao Zedong, the PRC\u2013USSR ideological schism no longer shaped domestic politics but continued to impact geopolitics. The initial Soviet-Chinese proxy war occurred in Indochina in 1975, where the Communist victory of the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) and of North Vietnam in the 30-year Vietnam War had produced a post\u2013colonial Indochina that featured pro-Soviet regimes in Vietnam (Socialist Republic of Vietnam) and Laos (Lao People&#8217;s Democratic Republic), and a pro-Chinese regime in Cambodia (Democratic Kampuchea). At first, Vietnam ignored the Khmer Rouge domestic reorganization of Cambodia by the Pol Pot regime (1975\u201379) as an internal matter, until the Khmer Rouge attacked the ethnic Vietnamese populace of Cambodia and the border with Vietnam. The counter-attack precipitated the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1975\u201379) that deposed Pol Pot in 1978. In response, the PRC denounced the Vietnamese and retaliated by invading northern Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese War (1979). In turn, the USSR denounced the PRC&#8217;s invasion of Vietnam. In 1979, the USSR invaded the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan to sustain the Afghan Communist government. The PRC viewed the Soviet invasion as a local feint within Soviet&#8217;s greater geopolitical encirclement of China. In response, the PRC entered a tripartite alliance with the U.S. and Pakistan to sponsor Islamist Afghan armed resistance to the Soviet occupation (1979\u201389).<\/p>\n<p>Relations between China and the Soviet Union remained tense until the visit of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to Beijing in 1989.<\/p>\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The Sino-Soviet Split\n<ul>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Cuban Missile Crisis.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cuban_Missile_Crisis\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cuban_Missile_Crisis<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Great Leap Forward.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Great_Leap_Forward<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Hundred Flowers Campaign.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hundred_Flowers_Campaign<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Five-year_plans_for_the_national_economy_of_the_Soviet_Union<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Sino-Soviet split.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Cultural Revolution .&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultural_Revolution<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Mao_Ts\u00e9-toung_portrait_en_buste_assis_faisant_face_\u00e0_Nikita_Khrouchtchev_pendant_la_visite_du_chef_russe_1958_\u00e0_P\u00e9kin.jpg.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:Mao_Ts%C3%A9-toung,_portrait_en_buste,_assis,_faisant_face_%C3%A0_Nikita_Khrouchtchev,_pendant_la_visite_du_chef_russe_1958_%C3%A0_P%C3%A9kin.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:Mao_Ts%C3%A9-toung,_portrait_en_buste,_assis,_faisant_face_%C3%A0_Nikita_Khrouchtchev,_pendant_la_visite_du_chef_russe_1958_%C3%A0_P%C3%A9kin.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;800px-China_USSR_E_88.jpg.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:China_USSR_E_88.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sino-Soviet_split#\/media\/File:China_USSR_E_88.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4429\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Boundless World History. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Boundless. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":23437,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Boundless World History\",\"author\":\"Boundless\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4429","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3225,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4429","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/23437"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4429\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5743,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4429\/revisions\/5743"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3225"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4429\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4429"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4429"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4429"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-worldhistory\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4429"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}