{"id":117,"date":"2017-06-09T15:55:37","date_gmt":"2017-06-09T15:55:37","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sunycorning1010elec201718\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=117"},"modified":"2017-06-19T10:59:16","modified_gmt":"2017-06-19T10:59:16","slug":"prewriting","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sunycorning1010elec201718\/chapter\/prewriting\/","title":{"raw":"Prewriting and Rhetorical Context","rendered":"Prewriting and Rhetorical Context"},"content":{"raw":"<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">During the pre-writing stage, also known as the brainstorming stage, a writer seeks to generate and develop ideas about a topic.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Techniques and strategies<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">using free mental associations that might eventually lead to written notes or outlines<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a personal inventory of interests and fascinations, likes and dislikes<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">conducting online or print catalog searches using keywords and questions<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">using the inductive or deductive reasoning process to identify a manageable topic<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">reading a text that addresses a similar topic; perhaps reading the table of contents, index, and chapter headings and subheadings to gain insight on the topic<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a uniform set of questions to be answered about a topic (e.g. the \u201cfive Ws and an H\u201d model: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?)<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">writing handwritten notes\u2014organized or disorganized\u2014on a note card, on paper, or in electronic form<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">writing a preliminary outline\u2014formal or informal\u2014about the intended topic and subtopics<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a graphic organization of ideas (e.g. Venn diagram or circle clusters)<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">writing a draft of the thesis or hypothesis with an outline of key supporting details<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a very rough draft of the opening paragraph that includes a topical overview<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Starting off on the right foot<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><img class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-467\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/107\/2016\/06\/24185606\/8571446514_39c066d45d_z-268x300.jpg\" alt=\"Painting of person in purple shirt with head in thoughtful pose, bright colors streaming from his skull\" width=\"268\" height=\"300\" \/>The term \u201cpre-writing\u201d may be a bit misleading because writing can and often does occur at this critical stage. For example, written notes and outlines, including graphic organizers, can serve as a record of one\u2019s ideas and the sources of those ideas. A preliminary thesis or hypothesis could inform the process and the product.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Many people do brainstorm via their thoughts without recording those ideas and sources in permanent form prior to the next steps in the writing process. Most emerging writers, however, need to record their pre-writing ideas in permanent form so that those ideas can clearly inform and guide the thinking and writing process, resulting in a coherent, well-organized product or text.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Many students \u2014 and some teachers \u2014 want to skip the pre-writing stage because they see it as unnecessarily burdensome and time-consuming. However, teachers who dismiss the pre-writing stage as being completely unnecessary are performing a disservice to many of their students. Pre-writing is an essential part of the entire writing process because it enables the writer to begin documenting the process by which the eventual product will be formed and evaluated. It is part of a procedure that is necessary for accountability and reliability. Most professions include accountability and reliability in their standard operating procedures as written reports of preparatory work for use by the practitioner and for potential legal documentation and reference. Writers are no less responsible for accountability for their work than are lawyers and medical personnel.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Resources<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Skipping the pre-writing stage is like taking a vacation without first choosing a destination: If you don\u2019t know where you\u2019re going, how will you get there? Fortunately, pre-writing can take many forms, and there are strategies that suit every type of writer. <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">The strategies and processes used in the pre-writing stage not only help the writer formulate a topic and solidify ideas, they also serve as a kind of rehearsal for the rest of the writing process. As the writer uses the vocabulary associated with a particular topic, he or she becomes more well-versed in the subject and is able to express ideas with more confidence, organization, and clarity. All of this brings to mind the old joke, \u201cHow do you get to Carnegie Hall?\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">The answer, of course: \u201cPractice. Practice. Practice.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Just as a musician must practice his instrument in order to achieve his goal, the practice undertaken during the pre-writing stage guides the writer toward a specific goal: developing a well-defined topic that will eventually be couched in the language of a succinct thesis or hypothesis.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"p5\">Rhetorical Context<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">Any piece of writing is shaped by external factors before the first word is ever set down on the page. These factors are referred to as the <strong>rhetorical situation<\/strong>, or <strong>rhetorical context<\/strong>, and are often presented in the form of a pyramid.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-474\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/107\/2016\/06\/24205229\/11932449495_8df65eb0c6_z.jpg\" alt=\"Hand drawn triangle made of double-sided arrows. At top, Purpose; Bottom left, Author; Bottom right, Audience. Inside the triangle is Message, emphasized in red.\" width=\"501\" height=\"338\" \/><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">The three key factors--purpose, author, and audience--all work together to influence what the text itself says, and how it says it. Let's examine each of the three in more detail.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"p4\">Purpose<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Any time you are preparing to write, you should first ask yourself, \u201cWhy am I writing?\u201d All writing, no matter the type, has a purpose. Purpose will sometimes be given to you (by a teacher, for example), while other times, you will decide for yourself. As the author, it\u2019s up to you to make sure that purpose is clear not only for yourself, but also\u2013especially\u2013for your audience. If your purpose is not clear, your audience is not likely to receive your intended message.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">There are, of course, many different reasons to write (e.g., to inform, to entertain, to persuade, to ask questions), and you may find that some writing has more than one purpose. When this happens, be sure to consider any conflict between purposes, and remember that you will usually focus on one main purpose as primary.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Bottom line: Thinking about your purpose before you begin to write can help you create a more effective piece of writing.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"p4\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Why Purpose Matters<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">If you\u2019ve ever listened to a lecture or read an essay and wondered \u201cso what\u201d or \u201cwhat is this person talking about,\u201d then you know how frustrating it can be when an author\u2019s purpose is not clear. By clearly defining your purpose before you begin writing, it\u2019s less likely you\u2019ll be that author who leaves the audience wondering.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">If readers can\u2019t identify the purpose in a text, they usually quit reading. You can\u2019t deliver a message to an audience who quits reading.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">If a teacher can\u2019t identify the purpose in your text, they will likely assume you didn\u2019t understand the assignment and, chances are, you won\u2019t receive a good grade.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Useful Questions<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Consider how the answers to the following questions may affect your writing:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">What is my primary purpose for writing? How do I want my audience to think, feel, or respond after they read my writing?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">Do my audience\u2019s expectations affect my purpose? Should they?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">How can I best get my point across (e.g., tell a story, argue, cite other sources)?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">Do I have any secondary or tertiary purposes? Do any of these purposes conflict with one another or with my primary purpose?<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Audience<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">In order for your writing to be maximally effective, you have to think about the audience you\u2019re writing for and adapt your writing approach to their needs, expectations, backgrounds, and interests. Being aware of your audience helps you make better decisions about what to say and how to say it. For example, you have a better idea if you will need to define or explain any terms, and you can make a more conscious effort not to say or do anything that would offend your audience.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Sometimes you know who will read your writing \u2013 for example, if you are writing an email to your boss. Other times you will have to guess who is likely to read your writing \u2013 for example, if you are writing a newspaper editorial. You will often write with a primary audience in mind, but there may be secondary and tertiary audiences to consider as well.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"p4\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>What to Think About<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">When analyzing your audience, consider these points. Doing this should make it easier to create a profile of your audience, which can help guide your writing choices.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Background-knowledge or Experience<\/b> -- In general, you don\u2019t want to merely repeat what your audience already knows about the topic you\u2019re writing about; you want to build on it. On the other hand, you don\u2019t want to talk over their heads. Anticipate\u00a0their amount of previous knowledge or experience based on elements\u00a0like their age, profession, or level of education.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Expectations and Interests<\/b> -- Your audience may expect to find specific points or writing approaches, especially if you are writing for a teacher or a boss. Consider not only what they <em>do<\/em> want to read about, but also what they <em>do not<\/em> want to read about.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Attitudes and Biases<\/b> -- Your audience may have predetermined feelings about you or your topic, which can affect how hard you have to work to win them over or appeal to them. The audience\u2019s attitudes and biases also affect their expectations \u2013 for example, if they expect to disagree with you, they will likely look for evidence that you have considered their side as well as your own.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Demographics<\/b> -- Consider what else you know about your audience, such as their age, gender, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, political preferences, religious affiliations, job or professional background, and area of residence. Think about how these demographics may affect how much background your audience has about your topic, what types of expectations or interests they have, and what attitudes or biases they may have.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Applying Your Analysis to Your Writing<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Here are some general rules about writing, each followed by an explanation of how audience might affect it. Consider how you might adapt these guidelines to your specific situation and audience. (Note: This is not an exhaustive list. Furthermore, you need not follow the order set up here, and you likely will not address all of these approaches.)[footnote](Rules adapted from David McMurrey\u2019s online text, <em>Power Tools for Technical Communication<\/em>)[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Add information readers need to understand your document \/ omit information readers don\u2019t need.<\/b> Part of your audience may know a lot about your topic, while others don\u2019t know much at all. When this happens, you have to decide if you should provide explanation or not. If you don\u2019t offer explanation, you risk alienating or confusing those who lack the information. If you offer explanation, you create more work for yourself and you risk boring those who already know the information, which may negatively affect the larger view those readers have of you and your work. In the end, you may want to consider how many people need an explanation, whether those people are in your primary audience (rather than a secondary audience), how much time you have to complete your writing, and any length limitations placed on you.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change the level of the information you currently have.<\/b> Even if you have the right information, you might be explaining it in a way that doesn\u2019t make sense to your audience. For example, you wouldn\u2019t want to use highly advanced or technical vocabulary in a document for first-grade students or even in a document for a general audience, such as the audience of a daily newspaper, because most likely some (or even all) of the audience wouldn\u2019t understand you.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Add examples to help readers understand.<\/b> Sometimes just changing the level of information you have isn\u2019t enough to get your point across, so you might try adding an example. If you are trying to explain a complex or abstract issue to an audience with a low education level, you might offer a metaphor or an analogy to something they are more familiar with to help them understand. Or, if you are writing for an audience that disagrees with your stance, you might offer examples that create common ground and\/or help them see your perspective.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change the level of your examples.<\/b> Once you\u2019ve decided to include examples, you should make sure you aren\u2019t offering examples your audience finds unacceptable or confusing. For example, some teachers find personal stories unacceptable in academic writing, so you might use a metaphor instead.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change the organization of your information.<\/b> Again, you might have the correct information, but you might be presenting it in a confusing or illogical order. If you are writing a paper about physics for a physics professor who has his or her PhD, chances are you won\u2019t need to begin your paper with a lot of background. However, you probably would want to include background information in the beginning of your paper if you were writing for a fellow student in an introductory physics class.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Strengthen transitions.<\/b> You might make decisions about transitions based on your audience\u2019s expectations. For example, most teachers expect to find topic sentences, which serve as transitions between paragraphs. In a shorter piece of writing such as a memo to co-workers, however, you would probably be less concerned with topic sentences and more concerned with transition words. In general, if you feel your readers may have a hard time making connections, providing transition words (e.g., \u201ctherefore\u201d or \u201con the other hand\u201d) can help lead them.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Write stronger introductions \u2013 both for the whole document and for major sections.<\/b> In general, readers like to get the big picture up front. You can offer this in your introduction and thesis statement, or in smaller introductions to major sections within your document. However, you should also consider how much time your audience will have to read your document. If you are writing for a boss who already works long hours and has little or no free time, you wouldn\u2019t want to write an introduction that rambles on for two and a half pages before getting into the information your boss is looking for.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Create topic sentences for paragraphs and paragraph groups.<\/b> A topic sentence (the first sentence of a paragraph) functions much the same way an introduction does \u2013 it offers readers a preview of what\u2019s coming and how that information relates to the overall document or your overall purpose. As mentioned earlier, some readers will expect topic sentences. However, even if your audience isn\u2019t expecting them, topic sentences can make it easier for readers to skim your document while still getting the main idea and the connections between smaller ideas.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change sentence style and length.<\/b> Using the same types and lengths of sentences can become boring after a while. If you already worry that your audience may lose interest in your issue, you might want to work on varying the types of sentences you use.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Use graphics, or use different graphics.<\/b> Graphics can be another way to help your audience visualize an abstract or complex topic. Sometimes a graphic might be more effective than a metaphor or step-by-step explanation. Graphics may also be an effective choice if you know your audience is going to skim your writing quickly; a graphic can be used to draw the reader\u2019s eye to information you want to highlight. However, keep in mind that some audiences may see graphics as inappropriate.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"p1\">\u00a0Author<\/h2>\r\nThe final unique aspect of anything written down is who it is, exactly, that does the writing. In some sense, this is the part you have the most control over--it's you who's writing, after all! You can harness the aspects of yourself that will make the text most effective to its audience, for its purpose.\r\n\r\nAnalyzing yourself as an author allows you to make explicit why your audience should pay attention to what you have to say, and why they should listen to you on the\u00a0particular subject at hand.\r\n<h3>Questions for Consideration<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>What personal motivations do you have for writing about this topic?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What background knowledge do you have on this subject matter?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What personal experiences directly relate to this subject? How do those personal experiences influence your perspectives on the issue?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What formal training or professional experience do you have related to this subject?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What skills do you have as a communicator? How can you harness those in this project?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What should audience members know about you, in order to trust what you have to tell them? How will you convey that in your writing?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">During the pre-writing stage, also known as the brainstorming stage, a writer seeks to generate and develop ideas about a topic.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Techniques and strategies<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">using free mental associations that might eventually lead to written notes or outlines<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a personal inventory of interests and fascinations, likes and dislikes<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">conducting online or print catalog searches using keywords and questions<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">using the inductive or deductive reasoning process to identify a manageable topic<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">reading a text that addresses a similar topic; perhaps reading the table of contents, index, and chapter headings and subheadings to gain insight on the topic<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a uniform set of questions to be answered about a topic (e.g. the \u201cfive Ws and an H\u201d model: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?)<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">writing handwritten notes\u2014organized or disorganized\u2014on a note card, on paper, or in electronic form<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">writing a preliminary outline\u2014formal or informal\u2014about the intended topic and subtopics<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a graphic organization of ideas (e.g. Venn diagram or circle clusters)<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">writing a draft of the thesis or hypothesis with an outline of key supporting details<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li4\"><span class=\"s1\">creating a very rough draft of the opening paragraph that includes a topical overview<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Starting off on the right foot<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-467\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/107\/2016\/06\/24185606\/8571446514_39c066d45d_z-268x300.jpg\" alt=\"Painting of person in purple shirt with head in thoughtful pose, bright colors streaming from his skull\" width=\"268\" height=\"300\" \/>The term \u201cpre-writing\u201d may be a bit misleading because writing can and often does occur at this critical stage. For example, written notes and outlines, including graphic organizers, can serve as a record of one\u2019s ideas and the sources of those ideas. A preliminary thesis or hypothesis could inform the process and the product.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Many people do brainstorm via their thoughts without recording those ideas and sources in permanent form prior to the next steps in the writing process. Most emerging writers, however, need to record their pre-writing ideas in permanent form so that those ideas can clearly inform and guide the thinking and writing process, resulting in a coherent, well-organized product or text.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Many students \u2014 and some teachers \u2014 want to skip the pre-writing stage because they see it as unnecessarily burdensome and time-consuming. However, teachers who dismiss the pre-writing stage as being completely unnecessary are performing a disservice to many of their students. Pre-writing is an essential part of the entire writing process because it enables the writer to begin documenting the process by which the eventual product will be formed and evaluated. It is part of a procedure that is necessary for accountability and reliability. Most professions include accountability and reliability in their standard operating procedures as written reports of preparatory work for use by the practitioner and for potential legal documentation and reference. Writers are no less responsible for accountability for their work than are lawyers and medical personnel.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Resources<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Skipping the pre-writing stage is like taking a vacation without first choosing a destination: If you don\u2019t know where you\u2019re going, how will you get there? Fortunately, pre-writing can take many forms, and there are strategies that suit every type of writer. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">The strategies and processes used in the pre-writing stage not only help the writer formulate a topic and solidify ideas, they also serve as a kind of rehearsal for the rest of the writing process. As the writer uses the vocabulary associated with a particular topic, he or she becomes more well-versed in the subject and is able to express ideas with more confidence, organization, and clarity. All of this brings to mind the old joke, \u201cHow do you get to Carnegie Hall?\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">The answer, of course: \u201cPractice. Practice. Practice.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Just as a musician must practice his instrument in order to achieve his goal, the practice undertaken during the pre-writing stage guides the writer toward a specific goal: developing a well-defined topic that will eventually be couched in the language of a succinct thesis or hypothesis.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"p5\">Rhetorical Context<\/h2>\n<p class=\"p1\">Any piece of writing is shaped by external factors before the first word is ever set down on the page. These factors are referred to as the <strong>rhetorical situation<\/strong>, or <strong>rhetorical context<\/strong>, and are often presented in the form of a pyramid.<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-474\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/107\/2016\/06\/24205229\/11932449495_8df65eb0c6_z.jpg\" alt=\"Hand drawn triangle made of double-sided arrows. At top, Purpose; Bottom left, Author; Bottom right, Audience. Inside the triangle is Message, emphasized in red.\" width=\"501\" height=\"338\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\">The three key factors&#8211;purpose, author, and audience&#8211;all work together to influence what the text itself says, and how it says it. Let&#8217;s examine each of the three in more detail.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"p4\">Purpose<\/h2>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Any time you are preparing to write, you should first ask yourself, \u201cWhy am I writing?\u201d All writing, no matter the type, has a purpose. Purpose will sometimes be given to you (by a teacher, for example), while other times, you will decide for yourself. As the author, it\u2019s up to you to make sure that purpose is clear not only for yourself, but also\u2013especially\u2013for your audience. If your purpose is not clear, your audience is not likely to receive your intended message.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">There are, of course, many different reasons to write (e.g., to inform, to entertain, to persuade, to ask questions), and you may find that some writing has more than one purpose. When this happens, be sure to consider any conflict between purposes, and remember that you will usually focus on one main purpose as primary.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Bottom line: Thinking about your purpose before you begin to write can help you create a more effective piece of writing.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3 class=\"p4\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Why Purpose Matters<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">If you\u2019ve ever listened to a lecture or read an essay and wondered \u201cso what\u201d or \u201cwhat is this person talking about,\u201d then you know how frustrating it can be when an author\u2019s purpose is not clear. By clearly defining your purpose before you begin writing, it\u2019s less likely you\u2019ll be that author who leaves the audience wondering.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">If readers can\u2019t identify the purpose in a text, they usually quit reading. You can\u2019t deliver a message to an audience who quits reading.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">If a teacher can\u2019t identify the purpose in your text, they will likely assume you didn\u2019t understand the assignment and, chances are, you won\u2019t receive a good grade.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Useful Questions<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Consider how the answers to the following questions may affect your writing:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul class=\"ul1\">\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">What is my primary purpose for writing? How do I want my audience to think, feel, or respond after they read my writing?<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">Do my audience\u2019s expectations affect my purpose? Should they?<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">How can I best get my point across (e.g., tell a story, argue, cite other sources)?<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li1\"><span class=\"s1\">Do I have any secondary or tertiary purposes? Do any of these purposes conflict with one another or with my primary purpose?<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Audience<\/h2>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">In order for your writing to be maximally effective, you have to think about the audience you\u2019re writing for and adapt your writing approach to their needs, expectations, backgrounds, and interests. Being aware of your audience helps you make better decisions about what to say and how to say it. For example, you have a better idea if you will need to define or explain any terms, and you can make a more conscious effort not to say or do anything that would offend your audience.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Sometimes you know who will read your writing \u2013 for example, if you are writing an email to your boss. Other times you will have to guess who is likely to read your writing \u2013 for example, if you are writing a newspaper editorial. You will often write with a primary audience in mind, but there may be secondary and tertiary audiences to consider as well.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3 class=\"p4\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>What to Think About<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">When analyzing your audience, consider these points. Doing this should make it easier to create a profile of your audience, which can help guide your writing choices.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Background-knowledge or Experience<\/b> &#8212; In general, you don\u2019t want to merely repeat what your audience already knows about the topic you\u2019re writing about; you want to build on it. On the other hand, you don\u2019t want to talk over their heads. Anticipate\u00a0their amount of previous knowledge or experience based on elements\u00a0like their age, profession, or level of education.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Expectations and Interests<\/b> &#8212; Your audience may expect to find specific points or writing approaches, especially if you are writing for a teacher or a boss. Consider not only what they <em>do<\/em> want to read about, but also what they <em>do not<\/em> want to read about.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Attitudes and Biases<\/b> &#8212; Your audience may have predetermined feelings about you or your topic, which can affect how hard you have to work to win them over or appeal to them. The audience\u2019s attitudes and biases also affect their expectations \u2013 for example, if they expect to disagree with you, they will likely look for evidence that you have considered their side as well as your own.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Demographics<\/b> &#8212; Consider what else you know about your audience, such as their age, gender, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, political preferences, religious affiliations, job or professional background, and area of residence. Think about how these demographics may affect how much background your audience has about your topic, what types of expectations or interests they have, and what attitudes or biases they may have.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3 class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Applying Your Analysis to Your Writing<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Here are some general rules about writing, each followed by an explanation of how audience might affect it. Consider how you might adapt these guidelines to your specific situation and audience. (Note: This is not an exhaustive list. Furthermore, you need not follow the order set up here, and you likely will not address all of these approaches.)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"(Rules adapted from David McMurrey\u2019s online text, Power Tools for Technical Communication)\" id=\"return-footnote-117-1\" href=\"#footnote-117-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Add information readers need to understand your document \/ omit information readers don\u2019t need.<\/b> Part of your audience may know a lot about your topic, while others don\u2019t know much at all. When this happens, you have to decide if you should provide explanation or not. If you don\u2019t offer explanation, you risk alienating or confusing those who lack the information. If you offer explanation, you create more work for yourself and you risk boring those who already know the information, which may negatively affect the larger view those readers have of you and your work. In the end, you may want to consider how many people need an explanation, whether those people are in your primary audience (rather than a secondary audience), how much time you have to complete your writing, and any length limitations placed on you.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change the level of the information you currently have.<\/b> Even if you have the right information, you might be explaining it in a way that doesn\u2019t make sense to your audience. For example, you wouldn\u2019t want to use highly advanced or technical vocabulary in a document for first-grade students or even in a document for a general audience, such as the audience of a daily newspaper, because most likely some (or even all) of the audience wouldn\u2019t understand you.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Add examples to help readers understand.<\/b> Sometimes just changing the level of information you have isn\u2019t enough to get your point across, so you might try adding an example. If you are trying to explain a complex or abstract issue to an audience with a low education level, you might offer a metaphor or an analogy to something they are more familiar with to help them understand. Or, if you are writing for an audience that disagrees with your stance, you might offer examples that create common ground and\/or help them see your perspective.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change the level of your examples.<\/b> Once you\u2019ve decided to include examples, you should make sure you aren\u2019t offering examples your audience finds unacceptable or confusing. For example, some teachers find personal stories unacceptable in academic writing, so you might use a metaphor instead.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change the organization of your information.<\/b> Again, you might have the correct information, but you might be presenting it in a confusing or illogical order. If you are writing a paper about physics for a physics professor who has his or her PhD, chances are you won\u2019t need to begin your paper with a lot of background. However, you probably would want to include background information in the beginning of your paper if you were writing for a fellow student in an introductory physics class.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Strengthen transitions.<\/b> You might make decisions about transitions based on your audience\u2019s expectations. For example, most teachers expect to find topic sentences, which serve as transitions between paragraphs. In a shorter piece of writing such as a memo to co-workers, however, you would probably be less concerned with topic sentences and more concerned with transition words. In general, if you feel your readers may have a hard time making connections, providing transition words (e.g., \u201ctherefore\u201d or \u201con the other hand\u201d) can help lead them.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Write stronger introductions \u2013 both for the whole document and for major sections.<\/b> In general, readers like to get the big picture up front. You can offer this in your introduction and thesis statement, or in smaller introductions to major sections within your document. However, you should also consider how much time your audience will have to read your document. If you are writing for a boss who already works long hours and has little or no free time, you wouldn\u2019t want to write an introduction that rambles on for two and a half pages before getting into the information your boss is looking for.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Create topic sentences for paragraphs and paragraph groups.<\/b> A topic sentence (the first sentence of a paragraph) functions much the same way an introduction does \u2013 it offers readers a preview of what\u2019s coming and how that information relates to the overall document or your overall purpose. As mentioned earlier, some readers will expect topic sentences. However, even if your audience isn\u2019t expecting them, topic sentences can make it easier for readers to skim your document while still getting the main idea and the connections between smaller ideas.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Change sentence style and length.<\/b> Using the same types and lengths of sentences can become boring after a while. If you already worry that your audience may lose interest in your issue, you might want to work on varying the types of sentences you use.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\" style=\"padding-left: 30px\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>Use graphics, or use different graphics.<\/b> Graphics can be another way to help your audience visualize an abstract or complex topic. Sometimes a graphic might be more effective than a metaphor or step-by-step explanation. Graphics may also be an effective choice if you know your audience is going to skim your writing quickly; a graphic can be used to draw the reader\u2019s eye to information you want to highlight. However, keep in mind that some audiences may see graphics as inappropriate.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"p1\">\u00a0Author<\/h2>\n<p>The final unique aspect of anything written down is who it is, exactly, that does the writing. In some sense, this is the part you have the most control over&#8211;it&#8217;s you who&#8217;s writing, after all! You can harness the aspects of yourself that will make the text most effective to its audience, for its purpose.<\/p>\n<p>Analyzing yourself as an author allows you to make explicit why your audience should pay attention to what you have to say, and why they should listen to you on the\u00a0particular subject at hand.<\/p>\n<h3>Questions for Consideration<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>What personal motivations do you have for writing about this topic?<\/li>\n<li>What background knowledge do you have on this subject matter?<\/li>\n<li>What personal experiences directly relate to this subject? How do those personal experiences influence your perspectives on the issue?<\/li>\n<li>What formal training or professional experience do you have related to this subject?<\/li>\n<li>What skills do you have as a communicator? How can you harness those in this project?<\/li>\n<li>What should audience members know about you, in order to trust what you have to tell them? How will you convey that in your writing?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-117\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Pre-writing. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Vinetta Bell. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Learn NC. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.learnnc.org\/lp\/editions\/writing-process\/5805\">http:\/\/www.learnnc.org\/lp\/editions\/writing-process\/5805<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: A Writing Process. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Image of brainstorm. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: nist6dh. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/e4qUqA\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/e4qUqA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revision and Adaptation. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Understanding Your Purpose. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wright State University Writing Center. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/uwc.wikispaces.com\/Understanding+Your+Purpose\">https:\/\/uwc.wikispaces.com\/Understanding+Your+Purpose<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Analyzing Your Audience. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wright State University Writing Center. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/uwc.wikispaces.com\/Analyzing+Your+Audience\">https:\/\/uwc.wikispaces.com\/Analyzing+Your+Audience<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Image of Rhetorical Triangle. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Ted Major. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/jbqVvR\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/jbqVvR<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revision and Adaptation. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-117-1\">(Rules adapted from David McMurrey\u2019s online text, <em>Power Tools for Technical Communication<\/em>) <a href=\"#return-footnote-117-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":150,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Pre-writing\",\"author\":\"Vinetta Bell\",\"organization\":\"Learn NC\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.learnnc.org\/lp\/editions\/writing-process\/5805\",\"project\":\"A Writing 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