{"id":39,"date":"2018-05-28T11:02:59","date_gmt":"2018-05-28T11:02:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sunycorning1020elec201819\/?post_type=chapter&p=39"},"modified":"2018-06-18T11:17:03","modified_gmt":"2018-06-18T11:17:03","slug":"a-close-reading-of-the-details","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sunycorning1020elec201819\/chapter\/a-close-reading-of-the-details\/","title":{"raw":"A Close Reading of the Details","rendered":"A Close Reading of the Details"},"content":{"raw":"

A Close Reading of the Details<\/h2>\r\n
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES<\/h3>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Understand how to provide a close reading of different types of details.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Explain how to provide a close reading of creative works, non-fiction, and personal experiences.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Discuss how to extend the implications of loaded words, metaphorical language, images, and sounds.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Everywhere we turn, we hear people engaging in analysis. Sitting in a coffee shop, we overhear fellow caffeine addicts discussing diet fads, politics, and the latest blockbusters. Watching television, we listen to sports commentators discuss which team has the best chance to win the Super Bowl, comedians rip on the latest cultural trends, and talk show hosts lecture their guests on the moral repugnance of their actions. Still most of the time I find myself dissatisfied with the level of these conversations. Too many people throw out blanket judgments they can\u2019t defend while too many others mindlessly nod in agreement. If more people actually took the time to carefully examine their subjects, they might discover and articulate more satisfying and worthwhile perspectives. This chapter will help you to consider the components that make up your subject in a way that avoids the traps of a closed mind\u2014trying to make everything fit into a ready-made interpretation\u2014or an empty mind\u2014giving your subject a fast read or a cursory glance.<\/p>\r\n

    The best way to begin your analysis is with an attentive, open mind; something that is more difficult than most of us care to admit. Our analytical muscles often grow flabby through lack of use as we rush from one task to the next, seldom pausing long enough to consider anything around us. From an early age, overwhelmed by school, scheduled activities, and chores, we discovered that it is much easier to accept someone else\u2019s explanations than to think for ourselves. Besides, original thinking is rarely encouraged, especially in school where deviating from the teacher\u2019s perspective seldom results in good grades. It should therefore come as no surprise that the ability to slow down long enough to fully consider a subject is, for most of us, difficult, and not something that comes naturally. It is, however, definitely worthwhile to do so. Remember how Jeff, the frustrated student from \"The Nature of Analysis\"<\/a>\u00a0wasted hours staring at his computer screen because he did not think very deeply about\u00a0The Tempest<\/em>\u00a0when he first read it? Paying close attention when you first encounter a subject will save you time down the road.<\/p>\r\n

    Learning to prioritize the details on which to focus is just as important as learning how to pay close attention to a subject. Each detail does not warrant the same amount of consideration. Consider, for example, meeting someone at a party who relates every single detail of what happened to him throughout the day (I woke up at 6:58 a.m., brushed each of my teeth, had breakfast consisting of two thirds cereal and one third milk\u2026.). Who would not try to find an excuse to move to the other side of the room? Likewise, sometimes teachers will tell students to make sure that they use plenty of concrete details in their essays. Yes, concrete details are good to include and examine, but only if they matter. You risk boring your reader if you simply include details for their own sake without exploring what makes them important. When you read this section, keep in mind that you do not have to pay equal attention to all the kinds of details presented. Instead, focus on those that are most essential to your subject and purpose.<\/p>\r\n\"man\r\n

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    Events, Plots, and Actions<\/h2>\r\n

    Usually the first detail we relate when someone asks us \u201cwhat\u2019s new?\u201d is an important event or recent action we\u2019ve taken in our life: \u201cI ran a marathon on Sunday, found out I got into law school, got engaged to my girlfriend.\u201d Events and actions also tend to be the first things we consider about our subjects. Sometimes actions are overt\u2014we see a movie about a superhero who saves a city; sometimes they\u2019re implied\u2014we see a painting of a distraught face and we assume that something bad must have recently happened. Events and actions tend to consume the majority of our attention, whether they happen on a small scale to us individually or on a large scale to an entire city, country, or culture.<\/p>\r\n

    The subject that focuses the most closely on this type of detail is, of course, history. Certain events are so central to a particular era that they are studied again and again, often with different perspectives and conclusions. Take, for example, the big event of 1492. Up until I got to college, I was told that this was the year Columbus discovered America. Later I discovered that many historians disagree with this assessment of what happened. First of all, you can\u2019t discover a place that has already been found, yet the fact that people were living in America already was always brushed aside in my high school history texts. Given that many Native Americans had more sophisticated forms of government and agriculture than their European counterparts makes this oversight seem particularly troubling. And even if we were to revise the assessment to state \u201cColumbus was the first European to discover America,\u201d that too would be wrong. New discoveries of Viking settlements in southern Canada and the northern United States suggest that they beat Columbus by several decades. Understanding the event in light of these facts may cause us to revise the assessment of the event to \u201cColumbus introduced the Americas to the people of Europe,\u201d or, less charitably, \u201cColumbus opened up the Americas to modern European imperialism.\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    This is not to say that we should now consider Columbus a nefarious figure (at least from the Native American\u2019s point of view). He could not have anticipated the centuries of conquest that would follow his arrival. Often in history, people are caught up in forces they don\u2019t completely understand. The same holds true when you examine the actions of fictional characters. For instance, sometimes characters create the condition for their own downfall, which inspires us to learn from their mistakes. Other times, characters may act nobly yet come to bad ends anyway. Such plots may encourage us to try to change the system that rewards bad behavior and punishes good, or they might leave us feeling frustrated with the seemingly random nature of our existence.<\/p>\r\n

    In the first ten minutes of Mike Judge\u2019s film\u00a0Office Space<\/em>, all the actions solidify into a very definitive attitude about the problems with the modern workplace.Mike Judge, dir.,\u00a0Office Space<\/em>\u00a0(Twentieth Century Fox, 1999).<\/span>\u00a0Angry music plays as we see an above shot of a typical Southern California traffic jam. We now see it from the perspective of Peter Gibbons, one of the unfortunate drivers attempting to get through the jam. He moves a couple of feet, brakes; moves a couple of more feet, brakes. He tries to switch lanes, but whenever he does the one he just left begins to move and the one into which he moved comes to a grinding halt. All this time, an elderly man with a walker, who was once behind him on an adjacent sidewalk, has caught up and passed him. Peter responds with a momentary flare of anger that ends with a sigh of resignation. After the camera switches to a few of his colleagues stuck in the same jam, we see Peter arrive at his place of work, \u201cInitech.\u201d He sighs again with resignation as he gets the usual electrical shock from the brass doorknob that opens into a large room made up of a sea of office cubicles. Once again, the camera shot is from above, showing Peter lost among the crowd of workers.<\/p>\r\n

    Before he has a chance to get much work done, his boss comes by his cubicle to talk to him. He begins by asking Peter \u201chow\u2019s it going?\u201d in a tone of voice that makes it clear that he doesn\u2019t really care about the answer, and before Peter can respond the boss interrupts to chastise him for not using the correct cover sheet for the \u201cTPS Report\u201d he sent out the previous day. Two other bosses visit Peter repeating their predecessor\u2019s instruction and tone. During all of this, Peter continues to reveal the same look and sigh of resignation, until finally he begs two of his friends to take a coffee break out of fear that he might \u201close it.\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    All of these actions inspire us to ask the question: Does it have to be this bad? I don\u2019t think so. A more critical analysis could provide solutions to both the social and personal concerns touched on in the film. It could lead us to create much better systems of public transportation that get us to work in a more timely, less stressful manner. It could also lead bosses to discover better ways to encourage enthusiasm and dedication from their employees.<\/p>\r\n

    Understanding the implications of recent events and actions can be much more difficult than evaluating those that occur in the distant past or in fiction. At what point, for example, do the seemingly inappropriate actions of one country justify another to declare war on it? At what point do the actions of an individual justify another to call the police? Like everything else, most of this is a matter of interpretation, but success in professional settings often requires the ability to justify your point of view through a close reading of what actually occurred. Take for instance the proverbial story of a woman stealing a loaf of bread to feed her starving children. You could look at this action as extremely noble, as the mother puts herself in danger to keep her children healthy. The baker, however, may not share this sentiment, particularly if he too is struggling to survive.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Loaded Terms and Stock Phrases<\/h2>\r\n

    Though actions may speak louder than words, words are what usually inspire the actions to occur in the first place. In addition, we often base what we know of the world on what people tell us rather than on our direct experiences. Thus, unless we are able to discern how language may be manipulated, we stand a good chance of being manipulated ourselves. For instance, consider how politicians often ignore their opponent\u2019s actions and simply repeat\u00a0loaded terms<\/a><\/span>, words infused with negative associations like \u201cbleeding heart liberal\u201d or \u201cheartless conservative,\u201d to characterize an opponent as being against the public good. I came across a particularly blatant example of this when writing my dissertation on the Red Scare in America that followed World War II. The Red Scare was a period when the fear of the spread of communism abroad inspired a great deal of domestic suspicion and conformity. In a series of pamphlets released by the House Committee on Un-American Activities (often referred to as HUAC), the members attempted to feed this fear in the manner in which they explained the nature of communism to the American public. The pamphlets were set up in a question\/answer format, similar to the FAQ sections of websites today. Several of the answers attempted to show communism as a warped view from its inception by going after the man whom we often credit with inventing it: \u201cWhat was Marx\u2019s idea of a Communist World?\u201d HUAC\u2019s answer: \u201cThat the world as we know it must be destroyed\u2014religion, family, laws, rights, everything. Anybody opposing was to be destroyed too.\u201dU.S. Congresss, House, Committee on Un-American Activities,\u00a0100 Things You Should Know About Communism in the USA<\/em>\u00a0(80th Congress, 2d Session), 1.<\/span>\u00a0The repetition of \u201cdestroyed\u201d clearly inspires a feeling of dread, and presents an overly simplistic, and nearly cartoonish duality: melodramatic socialist villains twirling their mustaches while planning the destruction of their own families versus the warm-hearted capitalistic politicians in Washington who are only out to serve the public\u2019s best interests.<\/p>\r\n

    When loaded terms combine into\u00a0stock phrases<\/a><\/span>, aphorisms that people often repeat without fully considering their implications, you should be especially careful to look beyond the obvious meaning that\u2019s usually attached to them. Take the phrase, often attributed to legendary football coach Vince Lombardi: \u201cWinning isn\u2019t everything; it\u2019s the only thing.\u201d First of all, does this mean that we can never engage in sports for fun, exercise, or friendship? On the contrary, in sports and in all of life, we often learn best from our mistakes and our failings. If we only play it safe and try to win all the time, then we don\u2019t get to experiment and discover anything new. As Thomas Edison pointed out, he had to allow himself to fail over a thousand times when trying to invent the light bulb in order to discover the right way to do it. Clearly, winning isn\u2019t the\u00a0only<\/em>\u00a0thing, and I doubt that it should even be the most\u00a0important<\/em>\u00a0thing, at least for most of us.<\/p>\r\n

    Be especially attentive when analyzing creative works to make note of any stock phrases or loaded terms the characters repeat, as it often reveals insights about how they see themselves and the world. In J.D. Salinger\u2019s novel\u00a0Catcher in the Rye,<\/em>\u00a0Holden Caulfield, the troubled teenage protagonist, has just been expelled from his high school and goes to see his old history teacher, Mr. Spencer in his home. After a polite exchange, Mr. Spencer asks Holden to repeat what Dr. Thurmer, the principal, said to him just before giving him the boot:<\/p>\r\n

    \u201cWhat did Dr. Thurmer say to you, boy? I understand you had quite a little chat?\u2026\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    \u201cOh\u2026well, about Life being a game and all. And how you should play it according to the rules. He was pretty nice about it. I mean he didn\u2019t hit the ceiling or anything. He just kept talking about life being a game and all. You know.\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    \u201cLife\u00a0is<\/strong>\u00a0a game, boy. Life\u00a0is<\/em>\u00a0a game that one plays according to the rules.\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    \u201cYes, sir. I know it is. I know it.\u201d\u00a0J.D. Salinger,\u00a0The Catcher in the Rye<\/em>\u00a0(Boston, MA: LB Books, 1951), 8.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

    Though Holden agrees with Mr. Spencer out of politeness, he goes on to narrate:<\/p>\r\n

    \u201cGame, my ass. Some game. If you get on the side where all the hot-shots are, then it\u2019s a game, all right\u2014I\u2019ll admit that. But if you get on the\u00a0other<\/em>\u00a0side, where there aren\u2019t any hot-shots, then what\u2019s a game about it? Nothing. No game.\u201d<\/p>\r\n

    What disturbs me even more about the phrase is that it leaves absolutely no room for creativity because nothing new can be brought into a world that has already been completed, making us all seem like those blue or pink pegs in the Milton\/Bradley game\u00a0Life<\/em>, generic people with generic goals.<\/p>\r\n

    One reason that we often fall victim to erroneous conclusions is that every day we get bombarded with a form of media that pushes us to accept the most absurd phrases\u2014advertising. Take for instance the slogan \u201cthings go better with Coke.\u201d What \u201cthings\u201d? If I drank a Coke while running a marathon, I might get sick. And some things that actually do go better with Coke, I could do without, such as tooth decay and weight gain. To be fair, the slogans of Coke\u2019s chief competitor do not stand up to scrutiny either: \u201cPepsi, The Choice of a new generation.\u201d Which generation? And how did they determine that it\u2019s their choice? Often advertisers use ambiguous language like this in their slogans to deceive without lying outright. For instance, saying that a detergent\u00a0helps<\/em>\u00a0to eliminate stains does not tell us that it actually\u00a0will<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n\"Old\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Arguments and Policies<\/h2>\r\n

    When analyzing a more articulated argument or policy, we\u2019re often tempted to use a phrase either to wholeheartedly agree with a position or to dismiss it entirely. But in doing so, a critical examination often gets lost in a barrage of name-calling and hyperbole. To try to understand the other side of an argument, I like to write an\u00a0issue dialogue<\/a><\/span>, starting with the most extreme positions and moving toward more reasonable compromises. Consider, for instance, the debate that surrounds whether universities should continue to raise tuition in order to make up for government cut backs to education:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    \r\n

    For: Universities should raise tuition. Why should taxpayers cover the expense? You students want to have a first rate education but you don\u2019t want to pay for it. You\u2019re just a bunch of lazy young people who feel entitled to every government handout you can get.<\/em><\/p>\r\n

    Against: Not true. Education is an investment. What you greedy old people don\u2019t realize is that when a student eventually receives a better job because of his education, he will pay more in taxes. This increased revenue will more than repay the government for what it spent on his education.<\/p>\r\n

    For: That\u2019s assuming that a student will get a better job because of his education; many people, like Bill Gates, have done pretty well without a degree. And even if you can prove that students will make more money, that doesn\u2019t mean that they will remain in the community that invested in their education.<\/em><\/p>\r\n

    Against: True, but most probably will, and anyway, the university invests a lot of its money in these surrounding communities. As for your second point, for every Bill Gates, there are thousands of college dropouts who are flipping burgers or living on the streets.<\/p>\r\n

    For: But why should someone who doesn\u2019t have children or live near a university town have to support an institution that doesn\u2019t give anything back to them? Would you want to have to spend your hard earned money to support a senior center\u2019s golf course?<\/em><\/p>\r\n

    Against: Studies have shown that when governments do not spend money on education, they have to spend more on prisons so it\u2019s not as though cutting funding for education will benefit those taxpayers you describe. However, I agree that certain families should pay more for their children\u2019s education, as long as they can afford it.<\/p>\r\n

    For: And I will concede that governments should continue to provide access to education for those who can\u2019t afford it, but I think even children of poor families have an obligation to give back to the community that supported them when they finish their degrees.<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Though this could continue for several more pages, you can see that both sides are starting to move toward more reasonable characterizations of each other. Again, when writing an issue dialogue, it is tempting to ridicule those on the other side with stock phrases to make it easier to dismiss their views (especially when looking at perspectives from different cultures and eras). But the more we can reasonably state the opposing view\u2019s arguments, the more we can reasonably state our own, and we should apply the same amount of scrutiny to our own beliefs that we do to those who disagree with us.<\/p>\r\n

    Part of this scrutiny may involve raising questions about the author\u2019s period, culture, and biases (see the previous chapter, regarding analysis of sources). In addition, you should consider the strength of the arguments, evaluating how well the author supports the main assertions with sound evidence and reasoning while paying particular attention to whether they rely on any\u00a0fallacies<\/a><\/span>\u2014errors in reasoning. For instance, does the author make any hasty generalizations? Consider someone who attempts to argue that global warming doesn\u2019t exist on the basis that the weather has been quite cold for the last few days. Obviously the person would make a stronger case for her argument by presenting more encompassing evidence. Another common fallacy is the faulty syllogism (i.e. all cats die; Socrates is dead; therefore Socrates was a cat). Just because two items under considerations have a certain quality in common, does not mean that these items are the same. Perhaps the most common fallacy that I see students make is \u201cguilt by association.\u201d This may be due to the fact that politicians use it all the time. For instance, in the 2008 presidential election, many tried to associate Barack Obama with terrorists simply because his middle name (Hussein) was the same as the deposed leader of Iraq. John McCain\u2019s significant personal wealth was seen as evidence that he would be insensitive to the needs of the poor, even though liberals like Franklin Roosevelt and John Kennedy were also very well off. Also, be aware of the opposite fallacy\u2014success by association. Go to any tennis shoe commercial on YouTube and you will see famous athletes performing incredible acts, as though the shoes, and not years of practice, are responsible for their success.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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    Metaphorical Language<\/h2>\r\n

    Not all the details you analyze will suggest a literal action or point of view; many will be of a metaphorical, or symbolic, nature. Though there are many different types of\u00a0tropes<\/a><\/span>\u00a0(words or phrases that point toward a figurative meaning)\u2014such as metaphor, simile, and synecdoche. The basic function of each is to allow someone to literally \u201csee what you mean\u201d by comparing an abstract concept to something concrete. One reason the metaphor \u201clove is a rose\u201d is so well known is that the object and the concept match extremely well. A rose, like love, may manifest in many different forms and have several complex layers when examined closely. Roses show the cheerful side of love because they look nice, smell sweet, and inspire warm fuzzy feelings. However, they also show the dangers of love by having thorns, and being difficult to care for. Like the different people you love, a rose requires just the right amount of attention and care\u2014neither too much nor too little.<\/p>\r\n

    The need to extend metaphorical implications is especially apparent when analyzing a poem or a song. For instance, in her song \u201cChina,\u201d Tori Amos explores the different metaphorical significance the central term has on a crumbling relationship: a far away location that represents the distance couples often feel between each other, a place with a Great Wall that can refer to the figurative barriers we build to protect ourselves emotionally, and fancy plates that, on closer examination, have cracks (just like those who seem to have the perfect relationship and then suddenly announce that they are breaking up).Tori Amos, \u201cChina,\u201d\u00a0Little Earthquakes<\/em>\u00a0(Atlantic Records, 1992).<\/span>\u00a0In this case, understanding the metaphorical significance can give us an even greater appreciation of the song. When we say that a song (or any piece of art) \u201cstrikes a chord,\u201d we mean that it resonates with our thoughts, feelings, and memories, and an understanding of its central metaphors allows us to relate to it in even more ways.<\/p>\r\n

    Metaphorical language does not come up only in the arts, but also in other disciplines, especially theology and philosophy. Nearly all religious texts are filled with parables and analogies because they provide us with concrete images to explain spiritual concepts. Perhaps the most famous analogy from antiquity is Plato\u2019s \u201cAllegory of the Cave,\u201d in which Socrates compares human understanding to people locked in chairs and forced to look at the shadows of themselves, cast by the light of candles against a cave wall. In time, they confuse that reality for the true reality that lies above them. When one brave soul (read Socrates) escapes these confines and leaves the cave to discover the true reality, he returns to the people left behind to tell them of their limited existence. Instead of being grateful, they choose not to believe him and have him put to death because they prefer to accept the reality to which they\u2019ve become accustomed.<\/p>\r\n

    While this analogy continues to be told in various forms, it still needs to be examined critically. For instance, you might ask who put them in the cave and why? Is our reality set up as a training ground to move on to more satisfying forms of existence, as proposed in the film\u00a0The Matrix<\/em>? Or is it a cruel joke in which we\u2019re allowed only a glimpse of the way things should be while wallowing in our own inability to effect change? In addition, many have argued that the analogy relies on a transcendent notion of Truth that cannot be communicated or realized\u2014that Socrates believes that there is a greater place outside of our natural existence only because he has a vivid imagination or a need to prove his own importance. If this is true, then we might do better to improve the existence we actually experience than to stagnate while hoping for a better one.<\/p>\r\n

    But while poets, philosophers, and songwriters use metaphorical language to entertain and enlighten, many others use it primarily to manipulate\u2014drawing off of the symbolic value of certain terms. Again, advertisers are masters of this, helping companies to embed their products with metaphorical significance, beginning with what they choose to call them. Car companies often use the names of swift predatory animals to associate their products with speed, control, and power. And advertisers love to use analogies because they don\u2019t have to be proven. For example when stating that a product works \u201clike magic,\u201d they get all the associations with a mystical process that offers quick, painless solutions without having to demonstrate its actual effectiveness. Be particularly on guard for inappropriate analogies when analyzing arguments. For instance, people may attempt to justify violent acts to advance their version of the public good by using the analogy that \u201cyou have to break a few eggs to make a cake.\u201d A person is far more valuable than an egg, and the analogy is simply inappropriate. The analogy would be far more appropriate and effective if used to justify how you might need to give up smoking or sleeping late in order to get back into shape.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n

    Images, Sounds, Tastes, and Smells<\/h2>\r\n

    Images, like words, are often imbued with metaphorical significance and thus can be manipulated in a similar manner. For instance, the politician who stands in front of a flag while giving a speech is attempting to feed off of the patriotic implications associated with it. Likewise, fast food companies often use images of clowns and cartoon figures to associate their products with the carefree days of childhood when we didn\u2019t have to worry about gaining weight or having high cholesterol. But images we see in painting, sculpture, photography, and the other arts offer more subtle and variant interpretations and deserve more careful examination.<\/p>\r\n

    In fact, we can look at certain paintings more than a hundred times and continue to discern new patterns of meaning. For me, this is especially true of Van Gogh\u2019s \u201cThe Starry Night.\u201d In his song \u201cVincent,\u201d singer-songwriter Don Mclean describes the painting as \u201cswirling clouds in violet haze\u201d that reflect the eyes of an artist who suffered for his sanity because the people around him could not understand or appreciate his vision.\u00a0Don McClean, \u201cVincent,\u201d\u00a0American Pie<\/em>\u00a0(United Artists Records, 1971).<\/span>\u00a0Sometimes I see the painting this way, and other times I see it as a joyous dance of the stars moving in constant circles unencumbered by human misery.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_248\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"640\"]\"Swirling Vincent van Gogh
    Dutch, 1853-1890
    The Starry Night, Saint R\u00e9my, June 1889
    Oil on canvas, 29 x 36 1\/4\" (73.7 x 92.1 cm).
    Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest[\/caption]\r\n

    Music can also create feelings of triumph, joy, or despair without the need for any words to convey a direct message. Again, sometimes this can happen in a way that seems apparent and universal, (such as how the theme song from the film\u00a0Star Wars<\/em>\u00a0evokes feelings of heroism, excitement, and adventure) or in ways that are more subtle and complex. Jerry Farber, Professor of Comparative Literature, explains that the aesthetic appeal of Mozart\u2019s\u00a0Violin Concerto in A Major<\/em>\u00a0emerges through the contrast among the various musical themes within it:<\/p>\r\n

    Now there are moments when many listeners, I think, are likely to get isolated in the music immediately at hand, losing much of their awareness of the whole structure. Particularly during one section, a so-called \u2018Turkish\u2019 episode in a different time signature and a minor key, the listener is likely, once having adjusted to this new and exotic atmosphere, to be swept far away from the courtly minuet. Still, the overall structure is the context in which we hear this episode and is likely, if only by effect of contrast, to help shape our resonant response.Jerry Farber,\u00a0A Field Guide to the Aesthetic Experience<\/em>\u00a0(New York: Forwards, 1982), 106.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

    Which of these details you analyze depends on the unique features of the subject\u2019s particular genre. For instance in analyzing both a poem and a song, you can consider the major metaphors, key terms, and actions. But with a song, you should also consider how it\u2019s sung, which instruments are used, and how the music underscores or contrasts with the lyrics. Likewise, an analysis of both a painting and a film requires attention to the color, composition, and perspective of the scene. But with a film, you should also consider the dialogue, background music, and how each scene relates to the ones that come before and after it. Keep in mind that although different kinds of texts tend to stimulate particular types of responses, sometimes it is fruitful to think about pieces in light of seemingly incongruous perspectives. For instance, you could look at a love song as reflecting cultural attitudes about gender roles or a political speech as encouraging psychological disorders such as paranoia.<\/p>\r\n

    When your analysis focuses on personal experiences, decisions, and encounters, you can discuss those details that correspond with the other senses as well. In fact, taste and smell can play a crucial role in our experiences, as they have the strongest connection to memory. In\u00a0Swann\u2019s Way<\/em>, the first part of his prolific novel\u00a0In Search of Lost Time<\/em>, French author Marcel Proust describes how dipping a pastry in tea helped him to recall a period of his life that he might have otherwise permanently forgotten. Though at first he couldn\u2019t recall why the taste had such a powerful effect on him, he eventually remembered that it was something his grandmother gave him as a child when the family visited her in the summer. The taste helped him to recall not only his moments with his grandmother but the details of the house and town itself. As he puts it:<\/p>\r\n

    But when from a long-distant past nothing subsists, after the people are dead, after the things are broken and scattered, taste and smell alone, more fragile but more enduring, more unsubstantial, more persistent, more faithful, remain poised a long time, like souls, remembering, waiting, hoping, amid the ruins of all the rest; and bear unflinchingly, in the tiny and almost impalpable drop of their essence, the vast structure of recollection.Marcel Proust, Swann\u2019s Way,<\/em>\u00a0trans. C.K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Killmartin (New York: Random House, 1981), 50\u201351.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

    Though the personal experiences you write about do not have to be as significant to you as this was for Proust\u2019s narrator, you still need to recall the details as best you can. When doing so, take a step back and try to look at yourself as you might a character in a novel. Detaching yourself like this can be very hard to do, especially when you have a vested interest in seeing yourself in a certain light. However, you often get your best insights when you try, to paraphrase the poet Robert Burns, to see yourself as others see you. To illustrate, I will show how I can both present and analyze a recent visit to my gym.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    \r\n

    As I swiped my card at the entrance, the gentleman at the front desk greeted me with a friendly, \u201cHi Randy.\u201d I felt the usual twang of guilt because I can never remember his name and have to respond with a generic and slightly overenthusiastic, \u201cHey, how\u2019s it going?\u201d Inside, the YMCA has its usual mix of old and young, most of whom are trying to get back into shape as opposed to other gyms where the main motivation for coming is to show off the body you already have.<\/em><\/p>\r\n

    I take a bitter sip from the rusty drinking fountain and head to the weight room where I see a young man completing his set on the first machine. He is definitely impressed with himself, periodically looking in the mirror with an expression that would make Narcissus ashamed. When he gets off, I wait until he turns around so he can see me move the key down to include more weight than he was just using. The satisfaction I get from this action comes partly from deflating some of his ego and partly from inflating my own. However, my own smugness is short-lived, because as soon as I get up, a much older man with a noticeable beer belly and smelling of Ben Gay sits at the machine and lowers the key much further than where I had it.<\/em><\/p>\r\n

    I go through my weight routine with a bit more humility and then wander over to the elliptical for the aerobic portion of my workout. I pull out my iPod and click to Credence Clearwater Revival, the only group with a happy enough sound to take my mind off my aching feet. After enough time, I leave the same way via the guy at the front desk (only now I return his, \u201cBye Randy,\u201d with a generic and slightly over enthusiastic, \u201cSee you later; have a good day\u201d).<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Though there was no text to consult this time, I can still interpret the experience by recalling and focusing on the key details that make it up. I could discuss why I find it embarrassing to admit any personal weakness, whether it stems from my bad memory for trying to recall names or from my inability to lift as much weight as others. I could discuss the key in the weight machine metaphorically, and how I warped it in my mind from a simple tool to a larger symbol of competition. I could also discuss the effect of music and how it takes a lot of sting out of exercise by allowing me to focus on something other than the painful routine that stretches out before me. Finally, I could discuss how the rusty taste of the drinking fountain water or the smell of Ben Gay and sweat will always remind me of this particular gym.<\/p>\r\n

    When looking at a relationship or a decision, the analytical process is essentially the same as when you examine a specific event; you still need to consider, recall, and imagine various moments\u2014just more of them. Whereas a relationship with another person is the sum total of all the time you\u2019ve already spent with that person, making a decision involves imagining what might come about as a result of our choices. Oftentimes our analysis inspires thoughts that leap around in time as we reconsider past patterns to predict likely future events. For instance, if I were to analyze whether I should get a kitten, my mind may race through a string of potentially good and bad memories of having had cats in the past: images of soft, cuddly, purring little creatures that also like to destroy drapes and meow in my ear at five in the morning. Of course no matter how long and hard we think about something, we can never be sure that the outcome will work out for us in the way we hope and expect. Still, to be satisfied that we at least tried to make an informed, intelligent, and aware decision, we must slow down and reconsider all the relevant moments that we\u2019ve already experienced.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    \r\n

    EXERCISE 1<\/h3>\r\n

    Think of four concrete words, those which represent something we can see, touch, taste, or smell (for example, desk, willow, seaweed, or sidewalk), and four abstract words, those that represent concepts, feelings, or attitudes (for example, jealousy, freedom, fear, or arrogance), and then think of how each of your concrete words illustrate an aspect of your abstract ones. For instance, you might consider how fear is like a willow. Both may spread a lot of shade over our lives. At times fear may keep us in the dark, \u201crooted\u201d like a willow from moving forward to places we need to go. However, at other times our fears may protect us from those dangers we are not yet ready to face.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n

    EXERCISE 2<\/h3>\r\n

    Write an issue dialogue on a policy that is important to you. First freewrite on your own position, considering all of the places where you got your information from in the first place; then freewrite on the opposite point of view, again, considering all the places where you have heard these perspectives articulated. Write a dialogue in which you take both sides seriously by fully considering the merits of each argument. How did your own position change as you considered other points of view? What possible compromises did you come to?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n

    EXERCISE 3<\/h3>\r\n

    Select something in your own life that is important to you at the moment. It could be the desire to recall a past experience, to reflect on an important relationship, or to analyze a decision that you must make. Now, take a moment to freewrite on all the significant details and factors that are involved. Reflect further on what you just wrote. To what extent do\/did you have choices regarding the outcome? To what extent does\/did it seem predetermined and by which people and what circumstances? What can you still learn or do about the situation to maximize its benefits? How can you better accept those aspects of it that are not likely to change?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    \r\n

    KEY TAKEAWAYS<\/h3>\r\n
      \r\n \t
    1. A close reading of a subject involves understanding the implications of the actions, terms, phrases, arguments, and images that make it up.<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. Metaphorical language can help us to understand a concept further as we extend how something concrete compares to something abstract.<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. An analysis of personal experiences, decisions, and relationships necessitates a certain level of detachment and a close reading of the relevant details.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

      A Close Reading of the Details<\/h2>\n
      \n

      LEARNING OBJECTIVES<\/h3>\n
        \n
      1. Understand how to provide a close reading of different types of details.<\/li>\n
      2. Explain how to provide a close reading of creative works, non-fiction, and personal experiences.<\/li>\n
      3. Discuss how to extend the implications of loaded words, metaphorical language, images, and sounds.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n

        Everywhere we turn, we hear people engaging in analysis. Sitting in a coffee shop, we overhear fellow caffeine addicts discussing diet fads, politics, and the latest blockbusters. Watching television, we listen to sports commentators discuss which team has the best chance to win the Super Bowl, comedians rip on the latest cultural trends, and talk show hosts lecture their guests on the moral repugnance of their actions. Still most of the time I find myself dissatisfied with the level of these conversations. Too many people throw out blanket judgments they can\u2019t defend while too many others mindlessly nod in agreement. If more people actually took the time to carefully examine their subjects, they might discover and articulate more satisfying and worthwhile perspectives. This chapter will help you to consider the components that make up your subject in a way that avoids the traps of a closed mind\u2014trying to make everything fit into a ready-made interpretation\u2014or an empty mind\u2014giving your subject a fast read or a cursory glance.<\/p>\n

        The best way to begin your analysis is with an attentive, open mind; something that is more difficult than most of us care to admit. Our analytical muscles often grow flabby through lack of use as we rush from one task to the next, seldom pausing long enough to consider anything around us. From an early age, overwhelmed by school, scheduled activities, and chores, we discovered that it is much easier to accept someone else\u2019s explanations than to think for ourselves. Besides, original thinking is rarely encouraged, especially in school where deviating from the teacher\u2019s perspective seldom results in good grades. It should therefore come as no surprise that the ability to slow down long enough to fully consider a subject is, for most of us, difficult, and not something that comes naturally. It is, however, definitely worthwhile to do so. Remember how Jeff, the frustrated student from “The Nature of Analysis”<\/a>\u00a0wasted hours staring at his computer screen because he did not think very deeply about\u00a0The Tempest<\/em>\u00a0when he first read it? Paying close attention when you first encounter a subject will save you time down the road.<\/p>\n

        Learning to prioritize the details on which to focus is just as important as learning how to pay close attention to a subject. Each detail does not warrant the same amount of consideration. Consider, for example, meeting someone at a party who relates every single detail of what happened to him throughout the day (I woke up at 6:58 a.m., brushed each of my teeth, had breakfast consisting of two thirds cereal and one third milk\u2026.). Who would not try to find an excuse to move to the other side of the room? Likewise, sometimes teachers will tell students to make sure that they use plenty of concrete details in their essays. Yes, concrete details are good to include and examine, but only if they matter. You risk boring your reader if you simply include details for their own sake without exploring what makes them important. When you read this section, keep in mind that you do not have to pay equal attention to all the kinds of details presented. Instead, focus on those that are most essential to your subject and purpose.<\/p>\n

        \"man<\/p>\n

        \n

        Events, Plots, and Actions<\/h2>\n

        Usually the first detail we relate when someone asks us \u201cwhat\u2019s new?\u201d is an important event or recent action we\u2019ve taken in our life: \u201cI ran a marathon on Sunday, found out I got into law school, got engaged to my girlfriend.\u201d Events and actions also tend to be the first things we consider about our subjects. Sometimes actions are overt\u2014we see a movie about a superhero who saves a city; sometimes they\u2019re implied\u2014we see a painting of a distraught face and we assume that something bad must have recently happened. Events and actions tend to consume the majority of our attention, whether they happen on a small scale to us individually or on a large scale to an entire city, country, or culture.<\/p>\n

        The subject that focuses the most closely on this type of detail is, of course, history. Certain events are so central to a particular era that they are studied again and again, often with different perspectives and conclusions. Take, for example, the big event of 1492. Up until I got to college, I was told that this was the year Columbus discovered America. Later I discovered that many historians disagree with this assessment of what happened. First of all, you can\u2019t discover a place that has already been found, yet the fact that people were living in America already was always brushed aside in my high school history texts. Given that many Native Americans had more sophisticated forms of government and agriculture than their European counterparts makes this oversight seem particularly troubling. And even if we were to revise the assessment to state \u201cColumbus was the first European to discover America,\u201d that too would be wrong. New discoveries of Viking settlements in southern Canada and the northern United States suggest that they beat Columbus by several decades. Understanding the event in light of these facts may cause us to revise the assessment of the event to \u201cColumbus introduced the Americas to the people of Europe,\u201d or, less charitably, \u201cColumbus opened up the Americas to modern European imperialism.\u201d<\/p>\n

        This is not to say that we should now consider Columbus a nefarious figure (at least from the Native American\u2019s point of view). He could not have anticipated the centuries of conquest that would follow his arrival. Often in history, people are caught up in forces they don\u2019t completely understand. The same holds true when you examine the actions of fictional characters. For instance, sometimes characters create the condition for their own downfall, which inspires us to learn from their mistakes. Other times, characters may act nobly yet come to bad ends anyway. Such plots may encourage us to try to change the system that rewards bad behavior and punishes good, or they might leave us feeling frustrated with the seemingly random nature of our existence.<\/p>\n

        In the first ten minutes of Mike Judge\u2019s film\u00a0Office Space<\/em>, all the actions solidify into a very definitive attitude about the problems with the modern workplace.Mike Judge, dir.,\u00a0Office Space<\/em>\u00a0(Twentieth Century Fox, 1999).<\/span>\u00a0Angry music plays as we see an above shot of a typical Southern California traffic jam. We now see it from the perspective of Peter Gibbons, one of the unfortunate drivers attempting to get through the jam. He moves a couple of feet, brakes; moves a couple of more feet, brakes. He tries to switch lanes, but whenever he does the one he just left begins to move and the one into which he moved comes to a grinding halt. All this time, an elderly man with a walker, who was once behind him on an adjacent sidewalk, has caught up and passed him. Peter responds with a momentary flare of anger that ends with a sigh of resignation. After the camera switches to a few of his colleagues stuck in the same jam, we see Peter arrive at his place of work, \u201cInitech.\u201d He sighs again with resignation as he gets the usual electrical shock from the brass doorknob that opens into a large room made up of a sea of office cubicles. Once again, the camera shot is from above, showing Peter lost among the crowd of workers.<\/p>\n

        Before he has a chance to get much work done, his boss comes by his cubicle to talk to him. He begins by asking Peter \u201chow\u2019s it going?\u201d in a tone of voice that makes it clear that he doesn\u2019t really care about the answer, and before Peter can respond the boss interrupts to chastise him for not using the correct cover sheet for the \u201cTPS Report\u201d he sent out the previous day. Two other bosses visit Peter repeating their predecessor\u2019s instruction and tone. During all of this, Peter continues to reveal the same look and sigh of resignation, until finally he begs two of his friends to take a coffee break out of fear that he might \u201close it.\u201d<\/p>\n

        All of these actions inspire us to ask the question: Does it have to be this bad? I don\u2019t think so. A more critical analysis could provide solutions to both the social and personal concerns touched on in the film. It could lead us to create much better systems of public transportation that get us to work in a more timely, less stressful manner. It could also lead bosses to discover better ways to encourage enthusiasm and dedication from their employees.<\/p>\n

        Understanding the implications of recent events and actions can be much more difficult than evaluating those that occur in the distant past or in fiction. At what point, for example, do the seemingly inappropriate actions of one country justify another to declare war on it? At what point do the actions of an individual justify another to call the police? Like everything else, most of this is a matter of interpretation, but success in professional settings often requires the ability to justify your point of view through a close reading of what actually occurred. Take for instance the proverbial story of a woman stealing a loaf of bread to feed her starving children. You could look at this action as extremely noble, as the mother puts herself in danger to keep her children healthy. The baker, however, may not share this sentiment, particularly if he too is struggling to survive.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        Loaded Terms and Stock Phrases<\/h2>\n

        Though actions may speak louder than words, words are what usually inspire the actions to occur in the first place. In addition, we often base what we know of the world on what people tell us rather than on our direct experiences. Thus, unless we are able to discern how language may be manipulated, we stand a good chance of being manipulated ourselves. For instance, consider how politicians often ignore their opponent\u2019s actions and simply repeat\u00a0loaded terms<\/a><\/span>, words infused with negative associations like \u201cbleeding heart liberal\u201d or \u201cheartless conservative,\u201d to characterize an opponent as being against the public good. I came across a particularly blatant example of this when writing my dissertation on the Red Scare in America that followed World War II. The Red Scare was a period when the fear of the spread of communism abroad inspired a great deal of domestic suspicion and conformity. In a series of pamphlets released by the House Committee on Un-American Activities (often referred to as HUAC), the members attempted to feed this fear in the manner in which they explained the nature of communism to the American public. The pamphlets were set up in a question\/answer format, similar to the FAQ sections of websites today. Several of the answers attempted to show communism as a warped view from its inception by going after the man whom we often credit with inventing it: \u201cWhat was Marx\u2019s idea of a Communist World?\u201d HUAC\u2019s answer: \u201cThat the world as we know it must be destroyed\u2014religion, family, laws, rights, everything. Anybody opposing was to be destroyed too.\u201dU.S. Congresss, House, Committee on Un-American Activities,\u00a0100 Things You Should Know About Communism in the USA<\/em>\u00a0(80th Congress, 2d Session), 1.<\/span>\u00a0The repetition of \u201cdestroyed\u201d clearly inspires a feeling of dread, and presents an overly simplistic, and nearly cartoonish duality: melodramatic socialist villains twirling their mustaches while planning the destruction of their own families versus the warm-hearted capitalistic politicians in Washington who are only out to serve the public\u2019s best interests.<\/p>\n

        When loaded terms combine into\u00a0stock phrases<\/a><\/span>, aphorisms that people often repeat without fully considering their implications, you should be especially careful to look beyond the obvious meaning that\u2019s usually attached to them. Take the phrase, often attributed to legendary football coach Vince Lombardi: \u201cWinning isn\u2019t everything; it\u2019s the only thing.\u201d First of all, does this mean that we can never engage in sports for fun, exercise, or friendship? On the contrary, in sports and in all of life, we often learn best from our mistakes and our failings. If we only play it safe and try to win all the time, then we don\u2019t get to experiment and discover anything new. As Thomas Edison pointed out, he had to allow himself to fail over a thousand times when trying to invent the light bulb in order to discover the right way to do it. Clearly, winning isn\u2019t the\u00a0only<\/em>\u00a0thing, and I doubt that it should even be the most\u00a0important<\/em>\u00a0thing, at least for most of us.<\/p>\n

        Be especially attentive when analyzing creative works to make note of any stock phrases or loaded terms the characters repeat, as it often reveals insights about how they see themselves and the world. In J.D. Salinger\u2019s novel\u00a0Catcher in the Rye,<\/em>\u00a0Holden Caulfield, the troubled teenage protagonist, has just been expelled from his high school and goes to see his old history teacher, Mr. Spencer in his home. After a polite exchange, Mr. Spencer asks Holden to repeat what Dr. Thurmer, the principal, said to him just before giving him the boot:<\/p>\n

        \u201cWhat did Dr. Thurmer say to you, boy? I understand you had quite a little chat?\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n

        \u201cOh\u2026well, about Life being a game and all. And how you should play it according to the rules. He was pretty nice about it. I mean he didn\u2019t hit the ceiling or anything. He just kept talking about life being a game and all. You know.\u201d<\/p>\n

        \u201cLife\u00a0is<\/strong>\u00a0a game, boy. Life\u00a0is<\/em>\u00a0a game that one plays according to the rules.\u201d<\/p>\n

        \u201cYes, sir. I know it is. I know it.\u201d\u00a0J.D. Salinger,\u00a0The Catcher in the Rye<\/em>\u00a0(Boston, MA: LB Books, 1951), 8.<\/span><\/p>\n

        Though Holden agrees with Mr. Spencer out of politeness, he goes on to narrate:<\/p>\n

        \u201cGame, my ass. Some game. If you get on the side where all the hot-shots are, then it\u2019s a game, all right\u2014I\u2019ll admit that. But if you get on the\u00a0other<\/em>\u00a0side, where there aren\u2019t any hot-shots, then what\u2019s a game about it? Nothing. No game.\u201d<\/p>\n

        What disturbs me even more about the phrase is that it leaves absolutely no room for creativity because nothing new can be brought into a world that has already been completed, making us all seem like those blue or pink pegs in the Milton\/Bradley game\u00a0Life<\/em>, generic people with generic goals.<\/p>\n

        One reason that we often fall victim to erroneous conclusions is that every day we get bombarded with a form of media that pushes us to accept the most absurd phrases\u2014advertising. Take for instance the slogan \u201cthings go better with Coke.\u201d What \u201cthings\u201d? If I drank a Coke while running a marathon, I might get sick. And some things that actually do go better with Coke, I could do without, such as tooth decay and weight gain. To be fair, the slogans of Coke\u2019s chief competitor do not stand up to scrutiny either: \u201cPepsi, The Choice of a new generation.\u201d Which generation? And how did they determine that it\u2019s their choice? Often advertisers use ambiguous language like this in their slogans to deceive without lying outright. For instance, saying that a detergent\u00a0helps<\/em>\u00a0to eliminate stains does not tell us that it actually\u00a0will<\/em>.<\/p>\n

        \"Old<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        Arguments and Policies<\/h2>\n

        When analyzing a more articulated argument or policy, we\u2019re often tempted to use a phrase either to wholeheartedly agree with a position or to dismiss it entirely. But in doing so, a critical examination often gets lost in a barrage of name-calling and hyperbole. To try to understand the other side of an argument, I like to write an\u00a0issue dialogue<\/a><\/span>, starting with the most extreme positions and moving toward more reasonable compromises. Consider, for instance, the debate that surrounds whether universities should continue to raise tuition in order to make up for government cut backs to education:<\/p>\n

        \n

        For: Universities should raise tuition. Why should taxpayers cover the expense? You students want to have a first rate education but you don\u2019t want to pay for it. You\u2019re just a bunch of lazy young people who feel entitled to every government handout you can get.<\/em><\/p>\n

        Against: Not true. Education is an investment. What you greedy old people don\u2019t realize is that when a student eventually receives a better job because of his education, he will pay more in taxes. This increased revenue will more than repay the government for what it spent on his education.<\/p>\n

        For: That\u2019s assuming that a student will get a better job because of his education; many people, like Bill Gates, have done pretty well without a degree. And even if you can prove that students will make more money, that doesn\u2019t mean that they will remain in the community that invested in their education.<\/em><\/p>\n

        Against: True, but most probably will, and anyway, the university invests a lot of its money in these surrounding communities. As for your second point, for every Bill Gates, there are thousands of college dropouts who are flipping burgers or living on the streets.<\/p>\n

        For: But why should someone who doesn\u2019t have children or live near a university town have to support an institution that doesn\u2019t give anything back to them? Would you want to have to spend your hard earned money to support a senior center\u2019s golf course?<\/em><\/p>\n

        Against: Studies have shown that when governments do not spend money on education, they have to spend more on prisons so it\u2019s not as though cutting funding for education will benefit those taxpayers you describe. However, I agree that certain families should pay more for their children\u2019s education, as long as they can afford it.<\/p>\n

        For: And I will concede that governments should continue to provide access to education for those who can\u2019t afford it, but I think even children of poor families have an obligation to give back to the community that supported them when they finish their degrees.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        Though this could continue for several more pages, you can see that both sides are starting to move toward more reasonable characterizations of each other. Again, when writing an issue dialogue, it is tempting to ridicule those on the other side with stock phrases to make it easier to dismiss their views (especially when looking at perspectives from different cultures and eras). But the more we can reasonably state the opposing view\u2019s arguments, the more we can reasonably state our own, and we should apply the same amount of scrutiny to our own beliefs that we do to those who disagree with us.<\/p>\n

        Part of this scrutiny may involve raising questions about the author\u2019s period, culture, and biases (see the previous chapter, regarding analysis of sources). In addition, you should consider the strength of the arguments, evaluating how well the author supports the main assertions with sound evidence and reasoning while paying particular attention to whether they rely on any\u00a0fallacies<\/a><\/span>\u2014errors in reasoning. For instance, does the author make any hasty generalizations? Consider someone who attempts to argue that global warming doesn\u2019t exist on the basis that the weather has been quite cold for the last few days. Obviously the person would make a stronger case for her argument by presenting more encompassing evidence. Another common fallacy is the faulty syllogism (i.e. all cats die; Socrates is dead; therefore Socrates was a cat). Just because two items under considerations have a certain quality in common, does not mean that these items are the same. Perhaps the most common fallacy that I see students make is \u201cguilt by association.\u201d This may be due to the fact that politicians use it all the time. For instance, in the 2008 presidential election, many tried to associate Barack Obama with terrorists simply because his middle name (Hussein) was the same as the deposed leader of Iraq. John McCain\u2019s significant personal wealth was seen as evidence that he would be insensitive to the needs of the poor, even though liberals like Franklin Roosevelt and John Kennedy were also very well off. Also, be aware of the opposite fallacy\u2014success by association. Go to any tennis shoe commercial on YouTube and you will see famous athletes performing incredible acts, as though the shoes, and not years of practice, are responsible for their success.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        Metaphorical Language<\/h2>\n

        Not all the details you analyze will suggest a literal action or point of view; many will be of a metaphorical, or symbolic, nature. Though there are many different types of\u00a0tropes<\/a><\/span>\u00a0(words or phrases that point toward a figurative meaning)\u2014such as metaphor, simile, and synecdoche. The basic function of each is to allow someone to literally \u201csee what you mean\u201d by comparing an abstract concept to something concrete. One reason the metaphor \u201clove is a rose\u201d is so well known is that the object and the concept match extremely well. A rose, like love, may manifest in many different forms and have several complex layers when examined closely. Roses show the cheerful side of love because they look nice, smell sweet, and inspire warm fuzzy feelings. However, they also show the dangers of love by having thorns, and being difficult to care for. Like the different people you love, a rose requires just the right amount of attention and care\u2014neither too much nor too little.<\/p>\n

        The need to extend metaphorical implications is especially apparent when analyzing a poem or a song. For instance, in her song \u201cChina,\u201d Tori Amos explores the different metaphorical significance the central term has on a crumbling relationship: a far away location that represents the distance couples often feel between each other, a place with a Great Wall that can refer to the figurative barriers we build to protect ourselves emotionally, and fancy plates that, on closer examination, have cracks (just like those who seem to have the perfect relationship and then suddenly announce that they are breaking up).Tori Amos, \u201cChina,\u201d\u00a0Little Earthquakes<\/em>\u00a0(Atlantic Records, 1992).<\/span>\u00a0In this case, understanding the metaphorical significance can give us an even greater appreciation of the song. When we say that a song (or any piece of art) \u201cstrikes a chord,\u201d we mean that it resonates with our thoughts, feelings, and memories, and an understanding of its central metaphors allows us to relate to it in even more ways.<\/p>\n

        Metaphorical language does not come up only in the arts, but also in other disciplines, especially theology and philosophy. Nearly all religious texts are filled with parables and analogies because they provide us with concrete images to explain spiritual concepts. Perhaps the most famous analogy from antiquity is Plato\u2019s \u201cAllegory of the Cave,\u201d in which Socrates compares human understanding to people locked in chairs and forced to look at the shadows of themselves, cast by the light of candles against a cave wall. In time, they confuse that reality for the true reality that lies above them. When one brave soul (read Socrates) escapes these confines and leaves the cave to discover the true reality, he returns to the people left behind to tell them of their limited existence. Instead of being grateful, they choose not to believe him and have him put to death because they prefer to accept the reality to which they\u2019ve become accustomed.<\/p>\n

        While this analogy continues to be told in various forms, it still needs to be examined critically. For instance, you might ask who put them in the cave and why? Is our reality set up as a training ground to move on to more satisfying forms of existence, as proposed in the film\u00a0The Matrix<\/em>? Or is it a cruel joke in which we\u2019re allowed only a glimpse of the way things should be while wallowing in our own inability to effect change? In addition, many have argued that the analogy relies on a transcendent notion of Truth that cannot be communicated or realized\u2014that Socrates believes that there is a greater place outside of our natural existence only because he has a vivid imagination or a need to prove his own importance. If this is true, then we might do better to improve the existence we actually experience than to stagnate while hoping for a better one.<\/p>\n

        But while poets, philosophers, and songwriters use metaphorical language to entertain and enlighten, many others use it primarily to manipulate\u2014drawing off of the symbolic value of certain terms. Again, advertisers are masters of this, helping companies to embed their products with metaphorical significance, beginning with what they choose to call them. Car companies often use the names of swift predatory animals to associate their products with speed, control, and power. And advertisers love to use analogies because they don\u2019t have to be proven. For example when stating that a product works \u201clike magic,\u201d they get all the associations with a mystical process that offers quick, painless solutions without having to demonstrate its actual effectiveness. Be particularly on guard for inappropriate analogies when analyzing arguments. For instance, people may attempt to justify violent acts to advance their version of the public good by using the analogy that \u201cyou have to break a few eggs to make a cake.\u201d A person is far more valuable than an egg, and the analogy is simply inappropriate. The analogy would be far more appropriate and effective if used to justify how you might need to give up smoking or sleeping late in order to get back into shape.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        Images, Sounds, Tastes, and Smells<\/h2>\n

        Images, like words, are often imbued with metaphorical significance and thus can be manipulated in a similar manner. For instance, the politician who stands in front of a flag while giving a speech is attempting to feed off of the patriotic implications associated with it. Likewise, fast food companies often use images of clowns and cartoon figures to associate their products with the carefree days of childhood when we didn\u2019t have to worry about gaining weight or having high cholesterol. But images we see in painting, sculpture, photography, and the other arts offer more subtle and variant interpretations and deserve more careful examination.<\/p>\n

        In fact, we can look at certain paintings more than a hundred times and continue to discern new patterns of meaning. For me, this is especially true of Van Gogh\u2019s \u201cThe Starry Night.\u201d In his song \u201cVincent,\u201d singer-songwriter Don Mclean describes the painting as \u201cswirling clouds in violet haze\u201d that reflect the eyes of an artist who suffered for his sanity because the people around him could not understand or appreciate his vision.\u00a0Don McClean, \u201cVincent,\u201d\u00a0American Pie<\/em>\u00a0(United Artists Records, 1971).<\/span>\u00a0Sometimes I see the painting this way, and other times I see it as a joyous dance of the stars moving in constant circles unencumbered by human misery.<\/p>\n

        \"Swirling<\/p>\n

        Vincent van Gogh
        Dutch, 1853-1890
        The Starry Night, Saint R\u00e9my, June 1889
        Oil on canvas, 29 x 36 1\/4″ (73.7 x 92.1 cm).
        Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        Music can also create feelings of triumph, joy, or despair without the need for any words to convey a direct message. Again, sometimes this can happen in a way that seems apparent and universal, (such as how the theme song from the film\u00a0Star Wars<\/em>\u00a0evokes feelings of heroism, excitement, and adventure) or in ways that are more subtle and complex. Jerry Farber, Professor of Comparative Literature, explains that the aesthetic appeal of Mozart\u2019s\u00a0Violin Concerto in A Major<\/em>\u00a0emerges through the contrast among the various musical themes within it:<\/p>\n

        Now there are moments when many listeners, I think, are likely to get isolated in the music immediately at hand, losing much of their awareness of the whole structure. Particularly during one section, a so-called \u2018Turkish\u2019 episode in a different time signature and a minor key, the listener is likely, once having adjusted to this new and exotic atmosphere, to be swept far away from the courtly minuet. Still, the overall structure is the context in which we hear this episode and is likely, if only by effect of contrast, to help shape our resonant response.Jerry Farber,\u00a0A Field Guide to the Aesthetic Experience<\/em>\u00a0(New York: Forwards, 1982), 106.<\/span><\/p>\n

        Which of these details you analyze depends on the unique features of the subject\u2019s particular genre. For instance in analyzing both a poem and a song, you can consider the major metaphors, key terms, and actions. But with a song, you should also consider how it\u2019s sung, which instruments are used, and how the music underscores or contrasts with the lyrics. Likewise, an analysis of both a painting and a film requires attention to the color, composition, and perspective of the scene. But with a film, you should also consider the dialogue, background music, and how each scene relates to the ones that come before and after it. Keep in mind that although different kinds of texts tend to stimulate particular types of responses, sometimes it is fruitful to think about pieces in light of seemingly incongruous perspectives. For instance, you could look at a love song as reflecting cultural attitudes about gender roles or a political speech as encouraging psychological disorders such as paranoia.<\/p>\n

        When your analysis focuses on personal experiences, decisions, and encounters, you can discuss those details that correspond with the other senses as well. In fact, taste and smell can play a crucial role in our experiences, as they have the strongest connection to memory. In\u00a0Swann\u2019s Way<\/em>, the first part of his prolific novel\u00a0In Search of Lost Time<\/em>, French author Marcel Proust describes how dipping a pastry in tea helped him to recall a period of his life that he might have otherwise permanently forgotten. Though at first he couldn\u2019t recall why the taste had such a powerful effect on him, he eventually remembered that it was something his grandmother gave him as a child when the family visited her in the summer. The taste helped him to recall not only his moments with his grandmother but the details of the house and town itself. As he puts it:<\/p>\n

        But when from a long-distant past nothing subsists, after the people are dead, after the things are broken and scattered, taste and smell alone, more fragile but more enduring, more unsubstantial, more persistent, more faithful, remain poised a long time, like souls, remembering, waiting, hoping, amid the ruins of all the rest; and bear unflinchingly, in the tiny and almost impalpable drop of their essence, the vast structure of recollection.Marcel Proust, Swann\u2019s Way,<\/em>\u00a0trans. C.K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Killmartin (New York: Random House, 1981), 50\u201351.<\/span><\/p>\n

        Though the personal experiences you write about do not have to be as significant to you as this was for Proust\u2019s narrator, you still need to recall the details as best you can. When doing so, take a step back and try to look at yourself as you might a character in a novel. Detaching yourself like this can be very hard to do, especially when you have a vested interest in seeing yourself in a certain light. However, you often get your best insights when you try, to paraphrase the poet Robert Burns, to see yourself as others see you. To illustrate, I will show how I can both present and analyze a recent visit to my gym.<\/p>\n

        \n

        As I swiped my card at the entrance, the gentleman at the front desk greeted me with a friendly, \u201cHi Randy.\u201d I felt the usual twang of guilt because I can never remember his name and have to respond with a generic and slightly overenthusiastic, \u201cHey, how\u2019s it going?\u201d Inside, the YMCA has its usual mix of old and young, most of whom are trying to get back into shape as opposed to other gyms where the main motivation for coming is to show off the body you already have.<\/em><\/p>\n

        I take a bitter sip from the rusty drinking fountain and head to the weight room where I see a young man completing his set on the first machine. He is definitely impressed with himself, periodically looking in the mirror with an expression that would make Narcissus ashamed. When he gets off, I wait until he turns around so he can see me move the key down to include more weight than he was just using. The satisfaction I get from this action comes partly from deflating some of his ego and partly from inflating my own. However, my own smugness is short-lived, because as soon as I get up, a much older man with a noticeable beer belly and smelling of Ben Gay sits at the machine and lowers the key much further than where I had it.<\/em><\/p>\n

        I go through my weight routine with a bit more humility and then wander over to the elliptical for the aerobic portion of my workout. I pull out my iPod and click to Credence Clearwater Revival, the only group with a happy enough sound to take my mind off my aching feet. After enough time, I leave the same way via the guy at the front desk (only now I return his, \u201cBye Randy,\u201d with a generic and slightly over enthusiastic, \u201cSee you later; have a good day\u201d).<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        Though there was no text to consult this time, I can still interpret the experience by recalling and focusing on the key details that make it up. I could discuss why I find it embarrassing to admit any personal weakness, whether it stems from my bad memory for trying to recall names or from my inability to lift as much weight as others. I could discuss the key in the weight machine metaphorically, and how I warped it in my mind from a simple tool to a larger symbol of competition. I could also discuss the effect of music and how it takes a lot of sting out of exercise by allowing me to focus on something other than the painful routine that stretches out before me. Finally, I could discuss how the rusty taste of the drinking fountain water or the smell of Ben Gay and sweat will always remind me of this particular gym.<\/p>\n

        When looking at a relationship or a decision, the analytical process is essentially the same as when you examine a specific event; you still need to consider, recall, and imagine various moments\u2014just more of them. Whereas a relationship with another person is the sum total of all the time you\u2019ve already spent with that person, making a decision involves imagining what might come about as a result of our choices. Oftentimes our analysis inspires thoughts that leap around in time as we reconsider past patterns to predict likely future events. For instance, if I were to analyze whether I should get a kitten, my mind may race through a string of potentially good and bad memories of having had cats in the past: images of soft, cuddly, purring little creatures that also like to destroy drapes and meow in my ear at five in the morning. Of course no matter how long and hard we think about something, we can never be sure that the outcome will work out for us in the way we hope and expect. Still, to be satisfied that we at least tried to make an informed, intelligent, and aware decision, we must slow down and reconsider all the relevant moments that we\u2019ve already experienced.<\/p>\n

        \n

        EXERCISE 1<\/h3>\n

        Think of four concrete words, those which represent something we can see, touch, taste, or smell (for example, desk, willow, seaweed, or sidewalk), and four abstract words, those that represent concepts, feelings, or attitudes (for example, jealousy, freedom, fear, or arrogance), and then think of how each of your concrete words illustrate an aspect of your abstract ones. For instance, you might consider how fear is like a willow. Both may spread a lot of shade over our lives. At times fear may keep us in the dark, \u201crooted\u201d like a willow from moving forward to places we need to go. However, at other times our fears may protect us from those dangers we are not yet ready to face.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        EXERCISE 2<\/h3>\n

        Write an issue dialogue on a policy that is important to you. First freewrite on your own position, considering all of the places where you got your information from in the first place; then freewrite on the opposite point of view, again, considering all the places where you have heard these perspectives articulated. Write a dialogue in which you take both sides seriously by fully considering the merits of each argument. How did your own position change as you considered other points of view? What possible compromises did you come to?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        \n

        EXERCISE 3<\/h3>\n

        Select something in your own life that is important to you at the moment. It could be the desire to recall a past experience, to reflect on an important relationship, or to analyze a decision that you must make. Now, take a moment to freewrite on all the significant details and factors that are involved. Reflect further on what you just wrote. To what extent do\/did you have choices regarding the outcome? To what extent does\/did it seem predetermined and by which people and what circumstances? What can you still learn or do about the situation to maximize its benefits? How can you better accept those aspects of it that are not likely to change?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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        KEY TAKEAWAYS<\/h3>\n
          \n
        1. A close reading of a subject involves understanding the implications of the actions, terms, phrases, arguments, and images that make it up.<\/li>\n
        2. Metaphorical language can help us to understand a concept further as we extend how something concrete compares to something abstract.<\/li>\n
        3. An analysis of personal experiences, decisions, and relationships necessitates a certain level of detachment and a close reading of the relevant details.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t
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          Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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          CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div>