A working definition of culture, adapted from Edgar Schein’s definition is that culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions of a group of people who learn from one another and teach to others that their behaviors, attitudes, and perspectives are the correct ways to think, act, and feel.

As you work through this chapter, remember these five things about culture:

1. It is learned. Geert Hofstede views culture as consisting of mental programs, calling it softwares of the mind, meaning each person “carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were learned throughout their lifetime”  (Hofstede, 1991, p. 4). Similarly, Peter Senge argues that mental models lock individuals and groups into a specific perception about the world (Senge, 1990, pp. 8-9). Like computers, we are programmed to act or behave in certain ways. Over time, the conscious and unconscious learning we undergo turn into beliefs that we consider to be valid. We then teach each other that these beliefs are cultural norms, and they are expressed in our daily lives as behaviors and actions.
2. It is shared. Although you may think of yourself as an individual, you share beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, traditions, and assumptions with people of similar cultural backgrounds. It is easier for you to relate to someone who shares your value systems and ways of doing things than to someone who does not. The patterns of culture bind us together and enable us to get along with each other.
3. It is dynamic. Culture is constantly changing, and thus complex. Culture is fluid rather than static, which means that culture morphs every day, in subtle as well as tangible ways. Because humans communicate and express their cultural systems in a variety of ways, it can be hard to pinpoint exactly what cultural dynamics are at play. It is important to pay attention to the cultural context of a communication to understand the depths of its dynamic properties.
4. It is systemic. In theory, systems are interrelated, interconnected parts that create a whole. There are patterns of behavior as well as deeply rooted structural systems which are beneath the waterline. What we see at the top of the iceberg are the behaviors; we do not see what underlying factors contribute to those behaviors. To address the system, one must be able to address the underlying patterns. These patterns, because they are deeply embedded in the system, require significant effort, time, and resources to identify and address. Changes to the system are so gradual that they may not become apparent until months, or even years, after a change has been initiated.
5. It is symbolic. Symbols, both verbal and nonverbal, form within cultural systems, and they have a unique way of linking human beings to each other. Humans attach specific, culturally-limited meanings to various symbols; as a result, the same symbol may have diverse, and sometimes drastically different, meanings in distinct cultures.

Figure 1. Elements of Culture

UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL CONTEXT

In her book, The Culture Map: Breaking through the Invisible Boundaries of Global Business, professor and author Erin Meyer explores not just expectations and understandings informed by culture but also how different cultural context thresholds affect transcultural communication. In preparation for exploring different cultural characteristics, first examine where you identify individually by taking Meyer’s self-assessment questionnaire: What’s Your Cultural Profile?.

In technical writing, we often create a piece of communication for a given reader, but how often do you think about the primary reader’s culture? What would you change in the communication if the reader has cultural identity that differs from your own? How much thought do you put into colors, layout, and language? Are there instances where you need to build a relationship with your audience in order to communicate effectively? Should you provide explicit information, or can you rely on a shared understanding of some factors, implicit knowledge that doesn’t need to be addressed directly? Should you add more visual elements? Familiarizing yourself with your audience’s expectations will help you communicate more effectively, particularly when you are communicating across cultures.

Now that you have a partial idea of your cultural profile, take a moment to watch this YouTube video, in which Meyer discusses Low Context vs. High Context Societies.

In contemporary society, the very concept of community is undergoing a fundamental transformation. The rise of the internet and 24/7 online activity means global business is more than trade between companies located in distinct countries on different continents. That concept is already outdated. Intercultural and international business focuses less on the borders that separate people and more on the communication that brings them together. Business communication values clear, concise interaction that promotes efficiency and effectiveness. You may perceive your role as a communicator within a specific city, business, or organization, but you should be aware that your activities cross not just borders, but cultures, languages, value systems, and legal systems.  As more companies and organizations enter the global arena, international—and thus, intercultural—communication skills have become essential for students as well as career professionals.

Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay is licensed CC0.

But we should remember that we’re still working with human constructs. The buildings we erect represent design values. The walls (or bridges) we build delineate borders. Our environment is a representation of culture, but it is not all there is to the concept of culture. Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people, as well as the psychological aspects of our expectations of the communication context.

DEFINING COMMUNICATION

There are eight components in every communicative act:

1. Source
2. Receiver
3. Message
4. Channel
5. Feedback
6. Context
7. Environment
8. Interference

Source

The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. The source encodes the message by choosing just the right order or the best words to convey the intended meaning, and presents or sends the information to the audience (receiver). By watching for the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well they received the message and responds with clarification or supporting information.

Message

“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience” (McLean, 2005). The message brings together words and, increasingly, images (think emojis and memes) to convey meaning, but is also about how the meaning is conveyed—through non-verbal cues, organization, grammar, style, and tone, for example.

Channel

“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver.” (McLean, 2005). Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, phone conversations and voicemail messages, radio, public address systems, Facetime, Skype, and a plethora of apps. Written channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and (also) a plethora of apps.

Receiver

“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source” (McLean, 2005). Have you ever sent or received an email that resulted in a misunderstanding between yourself and the receiver or sender of the email? Sometimes, what the sender says is not at all what the receiver hears.

Feedback

When you respond to the source, you are giving feedback, intentional and, perhaps, unintentional. Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or nonverbal, these feedback signals allow the source to see how accurately (or how inaccurately) the message was received (Leavitt & Mueller, 1951). The clearer and more concise your message, the less chance it will cause confusion or be misunderstood.

Environment

“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and receive messages” (McLean, 2005). Surroundings, people, animals, and technology can all influence your communication. Mood, too, influences your ability to communicate well. It’s best not to hit that send button if you’re in a bad mood. Take time to chill out and then reread your message. You may find it necessary to edit your draft.

Context

“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved” (McLean, 2005). Professional communication demands professional behavior. Courtesy, civility, and respect are prime elements of effective professional communication.

Interference

Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is anything that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message” (McLean, 2005). This can be external or internal. Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the channel between source and receiver. Internal noise may be psychological: it’s difficult to focus on any message when you’re in the midst of a personal crisis, or when you are multitasking. External noise may arise from a turbulent or toxic workplace situation, an interruption, or other environmental elements.

COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES

Though it may be tempting to consider only the source and the receiver in a transaction, ignoring the other six elements can negatively impact effective communication. It’s good to remember that each of these components is influenced by culture, and to examine the cultural aspect of each particular element. For example, if you are unaware of the communication style differences between high context and low context cultures, you may misunderstand feedback or fail to recognize interference when you are attempting to communicate with someone from a culture that differs from your own. Remember too, that the people you are communicating with may be as unfamiliar with your cultural identity as you are with theirs. To them, you are the foreigner. But intercultural communication is not limited to interactions that cross national boundaries.

A common concept of intercultural communication is to consider it as interaction between people from different countries, but there are smaller and more local cultural arenas. Think about what happens when people from two different parts of the same country communicate. From high and low Germanic dialects, to the South versus North perspectives that still sometimes operate in the United States, to the rural-versus-urban dynamic, there are geographic, linguistic, educational, sociological, psychological, and, sometimes, religious characteristics that influence communication even within national borders. People from rural Southern Chile and and those from the capital, Santiago, both speak Castellano, but that doesn’t negate the fact that communication between them can be seen as intercultural. What is life like for the rural Southerner? For the city dweller? Were their educational experiences the same? Do they share the same vocabulary? Do they value the same things? To the city dweller, all the sheep look the same. To the rural Southerner, each animal is distinct, with unique markings; sheep have value as a food source, a source of wool (for sweaters and socks that keep the cold winters at bay), and in their numbers they represent wealth. Even if urban and rural Chileans speak the same language, their life circumstances and socialization influence how they communicate and what they value, and their vocabulary will reflect these differences.

Intercultural communication is present within organizations as well. Organizational culture impacts the behavior, values, assumptions, and beliefs of its members. For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments in a corporation. We can quickly see two distinct groups, each with their own symbols, vocabulary, and values. Within each group, there may also be smaller groups, and each member of each department comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behavior and interaction. Now, think about that email you were about to send. Who will read it? Who could read it? What message will your colleagues or readers from another culture take from it—intended or not? A toxic organizational culture can implode an organization as effectively as a brutal and unethical competitor can.

Take this intranational comparison a step further. Can there be intercultural communication even within the same family? Imagine a three-generation family living in one house. The grandparents come from a different time and probably hold different values than the grandchildren (or even the parents of those children). The parents may have had a different level of education and pursued different careers than the grandparents; the schooling the children are receiving may prepare them for careers that didn’t exist when the grandparents were children. Music, food preferences, and chores vary across time; Elvis Presley may seem like ancient history to the children. Communication between generations represents intercultural communication, even if only to a limited degree. But suppose you have a group of students who are all similar in age and educational level. Do gender and societal role-expectations influence interaction? Of course. And so, among these students, the male, female, and transgender students communicate in distinct ways, depending on what they perceive about the audience with whom they’re communicating.

Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as we leave home, defining ourselves anew in work and achievements. Every business or organization has a culture, and within what may be considered a global culture, there are innumerable subcultures.

Sometimes, the focus of technical communication is quite easy: the primary reader is clearly targeted through demographic research. But think about how much more effective, more dynamic, a communication can be if the writer considers the potential cultural perspectives that may influence how the document is read, the video is viewed, or the meeting is held.

Chapter References

Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. London, England: McGraw-Hill, as cited in Leading with Cultural Intelligence, v. 1.0 (Saylor Academy, 2012) https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_leading-with-cultural-intelligence/s04-02-what-is-culture.html.

McClean, S. (2005). As cited in Communication for Business Professionals. (eCampus Ontario) https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/commbusprofcdn/chapter/1-3-eight-essential-components-of-communication/

Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday, as cited in Leading With Cultural Intelligence, v. 1.0 (Saylor Academy, 2012) https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_leading-with-cultural-intelligence/s04-03-culture-is-learned.html.

Schein, E. H. (2006). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.