If you’re in the mood for a scary movie, you may want to check out one of the five most popular horror movies of all time—I am Legend, Hannibal, The Ring, The Grudge, and The Conjuring. Figure 1 shows the amount, in dollars, each of those movies grossed when they were released as well as the ticket sales for horror movies in general by year. Notice that we can use the data to create a function of the amount each movie earned or the total ticket sales for all horror movies by year. In creating various functions using the data, we can identify different independent and dependent variables, and we can analyze the data and the functions to determine the domain and range. In this section we will investigate methods for determining the domain and range of functions such as these.

Figure 1. Based on data compiled by www.the-numbers.com.

Standard Notation for Defining Sets

There are several ways to define sets of numbers or mathematical objects. The reason we are introducing this here is because we often need to define the sets of numbers that make up the inputs and outputs of a function.

How we write sets that make up the domain and range of functions often depends on how the relation or function are defined or presented to us.  For example, we can use lists to describe the domain of functions that are given as sets of ordered pairs. If we are given an equation or graph, we might use inequalities or intervals to describe domain and range.

In this section, we will introduce the standard notation used to define sets, and give you a chance to practice writing sets in three ways, inequality notation, set-builder notation, and interval notation.

Consider the set [latex]\left\{x|10\le x<30\right\}[/latex], which describes the behavior of [latex]x[/latex] in set-builder notation. The braces [latex]\{\}[/latex] are read as “the set of,” and the vertical bar [latex]|[/latex] is read as “such that,” so we would read [latex]\left\{x|10\le x<30\right\}[/latex] as “the set of x-values such that 10 is less than or equal to [latex]x[/latex], and [latex]x[/latex] is less than 30.”

The table below compares inequality notation, set-builder notation, and interval notation.

	Inequality Notation	Set-builder Notation	Interval Notation
	[latex]5<h\le10[/latex]	[latex]\{h | 5 < h \le 10\}[/latex]	[latex](5,10][/latex]
	[latex]5\le h<10[/latex]	[latex]\{h | 5 \le h < 10\}[/latex]	[latex][5,10)[/latex]
	[latex]5<h<10[/latex]	[latex]\{h | 5 < h < 10\}[/latex]	[latex](5,10)[/latex]
	[latex]h<10[/latex]	[latex]\{h | h < 10\}[/latex]	[latex](-\infty,10)[/latex]
	[latex]h>10[/latex]	[latex]\{h | h > 10\}[/latex]	[latex](10,\infty)[/latex]
	All real numbers	[latex]\mathbf{R}[/latex]	[latex](−\infty,\infty)[/latex]

To combine two intervals using inequality notation or set-builder notation, we use the word “or.” As we saw in earlier examples, we use the union symbol, [latex]\cup [/latex], to combine two unconnected intervals. For example, the union of the sets [latex]\left\{2,3,5\right\}[/latex] and [latex]\left\{4,6\right\}[/latex] is the set [latex]\left\{2,3,4,5,6\right\}[/latex]. It is the set of all elements that belong to one or the other (or both) of the original two sets. For sets with a finite number of elements like these, the elements do not have to be listed in ascending order of numerical value. If the original two sets have some elements in common, those elements should be listed only once in the union set. For sets of real numbers on intervals, another example of a union is

[latex]\left\{x|\text{ }|x|\ge 3\right\}=\left(-\infty ,-3\right]\cup \left[3,\infty \right)[/latex]

This video describes how to use interval notation to describe a set.

This video describes how to use Set-Builder notation to describe a set.

Example: Describing Sets on the Real-Number Line

Describe the intervals of values shown below using inequality notation, set-builder notation, and interval notation.

Show Solution

To describe the values, [latex]x[/latex], included in the intervals shown, we would say, ” [latex]x[/latex] is a real number greater than or equal to 1 and less than or equal to 3, or a real number greater than 5.”

Inequality	[latex]1\le x\le 3\hspace{2mm}\text{or}\hspace{2mm}x>5[/latex]
Set-builder notation	[latex]\left\{x|1\le x\le 3\hspace{2mm}\text{or}\hspace{2mm}x>5\right\}[/latex]
Interval notation	[latex]\left[1,3\right]\cup \left(5,\infty \right)[/latex]

Remember that, when writing or reading interval notation, using a square bracket means the boundary is included in the set. Using a parenthesis means the boundary is not included in the set.

Try It

Given the graph below, specify the graphed set in

1. words
2. set-builder notation
3. interval notation

Show Solution

Words: values that are less than or equal to –2, or values that are greater than or equal to –1 and less than 3.

Set-builder notation: [latex]\left\{x|x\le -2\hspace{2mm}\text{or}\hspace{2mm}-1\le x<3\right\}[/latex];

Interval notation: [latex]\left(-\infty ,-2\right]\cup \left[-1,3\right)[/latex]

The table below gives a summary of interval notation.

Write Domain and Range Given an Equation

In Functions and Function Notation, we were introduced to the concepts of domain and range. In this section we will practice determining domains and ranges for specific functions. Keep in mind that, in determining domains and ranges, we need to consider what is physically possible or meaningful in real-world examples, such as tickets sales and year in the horror movie example above. We also need to consider what is mathematically permitted. For example, we cannot include any input value that leads us to take an even root of a negative number if the domain and range consist of real numbers. Or in a function expressed as a formula, we cannot include any input value in the domain that would lead us to divide by 0.

We can visualize the domain as a “holding area” that contains “raw materials” for a “function machine” and the range as another “holding area” for the machine’s products.

We can write the domain and range in interval notation, which uses values within brackets to describe a set of numbers. In interval notation, we use a square bracket [ when the set includes the endpoint and a parenthesis ( to indicate that the endpoint is either not included or the interval is unbounded. For example, if a person has $100 to spend, he or she would need to express the interval that is more than 0 and less than or equal to 100 and write [latex]\left(0,\text{ }100\right][/latex]. We will discuss interval notation in greater detail later.

Let’s turn our attention to finding the domain of a function whose equation is provided. Oftentimes, finding the domain of such functions involves remembering three different forms. First, if the function has no denominator or an even root, consider whether the domain could be all real numbers. Second, if there is a denominator in the function’s equation, exclude values in the domain that force the denominator to be zero. Third, if there is an even root, consider excluding values that would make the radicand negative.

Before we begin, let us review the conventions of interval notation:

• The smallest term from the interval is written first.
• The largest term in the interval is written second, following a comma.
• Parentheses, ( or ), are used to signify that an endpoint is not included, called exclusive.
• Brackets, [ or ], are used to indicate that an endpoint is included, called inclusive.

Example: Finding the Domain of a Function Involving a Denominator (Rational Function)

Find the domain of the function [latex]f\left(x\right)=\dfrac{x+1}{2-x}[/latex].

Show Solution

When there is a denominator, we want to include only values of the input that do not force the denominator to be zero. So, we will set the denominator equal to 0 and solve for [latex]x[/latex].

[latex]\begin{align}2-x&=0 \\ -x&=-2 \\ x&=2 \end{align}[/latex]

Now, we will exclude 2 from the domain. The answers are all real numbers where [latex]x<2[/latex] or [latex]x>2[/latex]. We can use a symbol known as the union, [latex]\cup [/latex], to combine the two sets. In interval notation, we write the solution: [latex]\left(\mathrm{-\infty },2\right)\cup \left(2,\infty \right)[/latex].

In interval form, the domain of [latex]f[/latex] is [latex]\left(-\infty ,2\right)\cup \left(2,\infty \right)[/latex].

Determine Domain and Range from a Graph

Another way to identify the domain and range of functions is by using graphs. Because the domain refers to the set of possible input values, the domain of a graph consists of all the input values shown on the [latex]x[/latex]-axis. The range is the set of possible output values, which are shown on the [latex]y[/latex]-axis. Keep in mind that if the graph continues beyond the portion of the graph we can see, the domain and range may be greater than the visible values.

We can observe that the graph extends horizontally from [latex]-5[/latex] to the right without bound, so the domain is [latex]\left[-5,\infty \right)[/latex]. The vertical extent of the graph is all range values [latex]5[/latex] and below, so the range is [latex]\left(\mathrm{-\infty },5\right][/latex]. Note that the domain and range are always written from smaller to larger values, or from left to right for domain, and from the bottom of the graph to the top of the graph for range.

Example: Finding Domain and Range from a Graph

Find the domain and range of the function [latex]f[/latex].

Show Solution

We can observe that the horizontal extent of the graph is –3 to 1, so the domain of [latex]f[/latex] is [latex]\left(-3,1\right][/latex].

The vertical extent of the graph is 0 to [latex]–4[/latex], so the range is [latex]\left[-4,0\right][/latex].

Example: Finding Domain and Range from a Graph of Oil Production

Find the domain and range of the function [latex]f[/latex].

(credit: modification of work by the U.S. Energy Information Administration)

Show Solution

The input quantity along the horizontal axis is “years,” which we represent with the variable [latex]t[/latex] for time. The output quantity is “thousands of barrels of oil per day,” which we represent with the variable [latex]b[/latex] for barrels. The graph may continue to the left and right beyond what is viewed, but based on the portion of the graph that is visible, we can determine the domain as [latex]1973\le t\le 2008[/latex] and the range as approximately [latex]180\le b\le 2010[/latex].

In interval notation, the domain is [latex][1973, 2008][/latex], and the range is about [latex][180, 2010][/latex]. For the domain and the range, we approximate the smallest and largest values since they do not fall exactly on the grid lines.

Try It

Given the graph, identify the domain and range using interval notation.

Show Solution

Domain = [latex][1950, 2002][/latex]   Range = [latex][47,000,000, 89,000,000][/latex]

Domain and Range of Toolkit Functions

We will now return to our set of toolkit functions to determine the domain and range of each.

For the constant function [latex]f\left(x\right)=c[/latex], the domain consists of all real numbers; there are no restrictions on the input. The only output value is the constant [latex]c[/latex], so the range is the set [latex]\left\{c\right\}[/latex] that contains this single element. In interval notation, this is written as [latex]\left[c,c\right][/latex], the interval that both begins and ends with [latex]c[/latex].

For the identity function [latex]f\left(x\right)=x[/latex], there is no restriction on [latex]x[/latex]. Both the domain and range are the set of all real numbers.

For the absolute value function [latex]f\left(x\right)=|x|[/latex], there is no restriction on [latex]x[/latex]. However, because absolute value is defined as a distance from 0, the output can only be greater than or equal to 0.

For the quadratic function [latex]f\left(x\right)={x}^{2}[/latex], the domain is all real numbers since the horizontal extent of the graph is the whole real number line. Because the graph does not include any negative values for the range, the range is only nonnegative real numbers.

For the cubic function [latex]f\left(x\right)={x}^{3}[/latex], the domain is all real numbers because the horizontal extent of the graph is the whole real number line. The same applies to the vertical extent of the graph, so the domain and range include all real numbers.

For the reciprocal function [latex]f\left(x\right)=\frac{1}{x}[/latex], we cannot divide by 0, so we must exclude 0 from the domain. Further, 1 divided by any value can never be 0, so the range also will not include 0. In set-builder notation, we could also write [latex]\left\{x|\text{ }x\ne 0\right\}[/latex], the set of all real numbers that are not zero.

For the reciprocal squared function [latex]f\left(x\right)=\frac{1}{{x}^{2}}[/latex], we cannot divide by [latex]0[/latex], so we must exclude [latex]0[/latex] from the domain. There is also no [latex]x[/latex] that can give an output of 0, so 0 is excluded from the range as well. Note that the output of this function is always positive due to the square in the denominator, so the range includes only positive numbers.

For the square root function [latex]f\left(x\right)=\sqrt[]{x}[/latex], we cannot take the square root of a negative real number, so the domain must be 0 or greater. The range also excludes negative numbers because the square root of a positive number [latex]x[/latex] is defined to be positive, even though the square of the negative number [latex]-\sqrt{x}[/latex] also gives us [latex]x[/latex].

For the cube root function [latex]f\left(x\right)=\sqrt[3]{x}[/latex], the domain and range include all real numbers. Note that there is no problem taking a cube root, or any odd-integer root, of a negative number, and the resulting output is negative (it is an odd function).

Piecewise-Defined Functions

Sometimes, we come across a function that requires more than one formula in order to obtain the given output. For example, in the toolkit functions, we introduced the absolute value function [latex]f\left(x\right)=|x|[/latex]. With a domain of all real numbers and a range of values greater than or equal to 0, absolute value can be defined as the magnitude, or modulus, of a real number value regardless of sign. It is the distance from 0 on the number line. All of these definitions require the output to be greater than or equal to 0.

If we input 0, or a positive value, the output is the same as the input.

[latex]f\left(x\right)=x\text{ if }x\ge 0[/latex]

If we input a negative value, the output is the opposite of the input.

[latex]f\left(x\right)=-x\text{ if }x<0[/latex]

Because this requires two different processes or pieces, the absolute value function is an example of a piecewise function. A piecewise function is a function in which more than one formula is used to define the output over different pieces of the domain.

We use piecewise functions to describe situations in which a rule or relationship changes as the input value crosses certain “boundaries.” For example, we often encounter situations in business for which the cost per piece of a certain item is discounted once the number ordered exceeds a certain value. Tax brackets are another real-world example of piecewise functions. For example, consider a simple tax system in which incomes up to [latex]$10,000[/latex] are taxed at [latex]10%[/latex], and any additional income is taxed at [latex]20%[/latex]. The tax on a total income, [latex] S[/latex] , would be [latex] 0.1S[/latex] if [latex]{S}\le$10,000[/latex]  and [latex]1000 + 0.2 (S - $10,000)[/latex] , if [latex] S> $10,000[/latex] .

Example: Writing a Piecewise Function

A museum charges $5 per person for a guided tour with a group of 1 to 9 people or a fixed $50 fee for a group of 10 or more people. Write a function relating the number of people, [latex]n[/latex], to the cost, [latex]C[/latex].

Show Solution

Two different formulas will be needed. For [latex]n[/latex]-values under 10, [latex]C=5n[/latex]. For values of [latex]n[/latex] that are 10 or greater, [latex]C=50[/latex].

[latex]C(n)=\begin{cases}\begin{align}{5n}&\hspace{2mm}\text{if}\hspace{2mm}{0}<{n}<{10}\\ 50&\hspace{2mm}\text{if}\hspace{2mm}{n}\ge 10\end{align}\end{cases}[/latex]

Analysis of the Solution

The graph is a diagonal line from [latex]n=0[/latex] to [latex]n=10[/latex] and a constant after that. In this example, the two formulas agree at the meeting point where [latex]n=10[/latex], but not all piecewise functions have this property.

Example: Working with a Piecewise Function

A cell phone company uses the function below to determine the cost, [latex]C[/latex], in dollars for [latex]g[/latex] gigabytes of data transfer.

[latex]C\left(g\right)=\begin{cases}\begin{align}{25} \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm}{ 0 }<{ g }<{ 2 }\\ { 25+10 }\left(g - 2\right) \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm}{ g}\ge{ 2 }\end{align}\end{cases}[/latex]

Find the cost of using 1.5 gigabytes of data and the cost of using 4 gigabytes of data.

Show Solution

To find the cost of using 1.5 gigabytes of data, [latex]C(1.5)[/latex], we first look to see which part of the domain our input falls in. Because 1.5 is less than 2, we use the first formula.

[latex]C(1.5) = $25[/latex]

To find the cost of using 4 gigabytes of data, [latex]C(4)[/latex], we see that our input of 4 is greater than 2, so we use the second formula.

[latex]C(4)=25 + 10( 4-2) =$45[/latex]

Analysis of the Solution

We can see where the function changes from a constant to a shifted and stretched identity at [latex]g=2[/latex]. We plot the graphs for the different formulas on a common set of axes, making sure each formula is applied on its proper domain.

Example: Graphing a Piecewise Function

Sketch a graph of the function.

[latex]f\left(x\right)=\begin{cases}\begin{align}{ x }^{2} \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm}{ x }\le{ 1 }\\ { 3 } \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm} { 1 }<{ x }\le 2\\ { x } \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm}{ x }>{ 2 }\end{align}\end{cases}[/latex]

Show Solution

Each of the component functions is from our library of toolkit functions, so we know their shapes. We can imagine graphing each function and then limiting the graph to the indicated domain. At the endpoints of the domain, we draw open circles to indicate where the endpoint is not included because of a less-than or greater-than inequality; we draw a closed circle where the endpoint is included because of a less-than-or-equal-to or greater-than-or-equal-to inequality.

Below are the three components of the piecewise function graphed on separate coordinate systems.

(a) [latex]f\left(x\right)={x}^{2}\text{ if }x\le 1[/latex]; (b) [latex]f\left(x\right)=3\text{ if 1< }x\le 2[/latex]; (c) [latex]f\left(x\right)=x\text{ if }x>2[/latex]

Now that we have sketched each piece individually, we combine them in the same coordinate plane.

Analysis of the Solution

Note that the graph does pass the vertical line test even at [latex]x=1[/latex] and [latex]x=2[/latex] because the points [latex]\left(1,3\right)[/latex] and [latex]\left(2,2\right)[/latex] are not part of the graph of the function, though [latex]\left(1,1\right)[/latex] and [latex]\left(2,3\right)[/latex] are.

Try It

Graph the following piecewise function.

[latex]f\left(x\right)=\begin{cases}\begin{align}{ x}^{3} \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm}{ x }<{-1 }\\ { -2 } \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if } \hspace{2mm}{ -1 }<{ x }<{ 4 }\\ \sqrt{x} \hspace{2mm}&\text{ if }\hspace{2mm}{ x }>{ 4 }\end{align}\end{cases}[/latex]

Show Solution

Key Concepts

• The domain of a function includes all real input values that would not cause us to attempt an undefined mathematical operation, such as dividing by zero or taking the square root of a negative number.
• The domain of a function can be determined by listing the input values of a set of ordered pairs.
• The domain of a function can also be determined by identifying the input values of a function written as an equation.
• Interval values represented on a number line can be described using inequality notation, set-builder notation, and interval notation.
• For many functions, the domain and range can be determined from a graph.
• An understanding of toolkit functions can be used to find the domain and range of related functions.
• A piecewise function is described by more than one formula.
• A piecewise function can be graphed using each algebraic formula on its assigned subdomain.

Glossary

interval notation

a method of describing a set that includes all numbers between a lower limit and an upper limit; the lower and upper values are listed between brackets or parentheses, a square bracket indicating inclusion in the set, and a parenthesis indicating exclusion

piecewise function

a function in which more than one formula is used to define the output

set-builder notation

a method of describing a set by a rule that all of its members obey; it takes the form [latex]\left\{x|\text{statement about }x\right\}[/latex]