Tracie set out from Elmhurst, IL to go to Franklin Park. On the way, she made a few stops to do errands. Each stop is indicated by a red dot in the figure below. Laying a rectangular coordinate grid over the map, we can see that each stop aligns with an intersection of grid lines. In this section, we will learn how to use grid lines to describe locations and changes in locations.

Plotting Points on the Coordinate Plane

An old story describes how seventeenth-century philosopher/mathematician René Descartes invented the system that has become the foundation of algebra while sick in bed. According to the story, Descartes was staring at a fly crawling on the ceiling when he realized that he could describe the fly’s location in relation to the perpendicular lines formed by the adjacent walls of his room. He viewed the perpendicular lines as horizontal and vertical axes. Further, by dividing each axis into equal unit lengths, Descartes saw that it was possible to locate any object in a two-dimensional plane using just two numbers—the displacement from the horizontal axis and the displacement from the vertical axis.

While there is evidence that ideas similar to Descartes’ grid system existed centuries earlier, it was Descartes who introduced the components that comprise the Cartesian coordinate system, a grid system having perpendicular axes. Descartes named the horizontal axis the x-axis and the vertical axis the y-axis.

The Cartesian coordinate system, also called the rectangular coordinate system, is based on a two-dimensional plane consisting of the x-axis and the y-axis. Perpendicular to each other, the axes divide the plane into four sections. Each section is called a quadrant; the quadrants are numbered counterclockwise as shown in the figure below.

The Cartesian coordinate system with all four quadrants labeled.

The center of the plane is the point at which the two axes cross. It is known as the origin or point [latex]\left(0,0\right)[/latex]. From the origin, each axis is further divided into equal units: increasing, positive numbers to the right on the x-axis and up the y-axis; decreasing, negative numbers to the left on the x-axis and down the y-axis. The axes extend to positive and negative infinity as shown by the arrowheads in the figure below.

Each point in the plane is identified by its x-coordinate, or horizontal displacement from the origin, and its y-coordinate, or vertical displacement from the origin. Together we write them as an ordered pair indicating the combined distance from the origin in the form [latex]\left(x,y\right)[/latex]. An ordered pair is also known as a coordinate pair because it consists of x and y-coordinates. For example, we can represent the point [latex]\left(3,-1\right)[/latex] in the plane by moving three units to the right of the origin in the horizontal direction and one unit down in the vertical direction.

An illustration of how to plot the point (3,-1).

When dividing the axes into equally spaced increments, note that the x-axis may be considered separately from the y-axis. In other words, while the x-axis may be divided and labeled according to consecutive integers, the y-axis may be divided and labeled by increments of 2 or 10 or 100. In fact, the axes may represent other units such as years against the balance in a savings account or quantity against cost. Consider the rectangular coordinate system primarily as a method for showing the relationship between two quantities.

Distance in the Plane

Derived from the Pythagorean Theorem, the distance formula is used to find the distance between two points in the plane. The Pythagorean Theorem, [latex]{a}^{2}+{b}^{2}={c}^{2}[/latex], is based on a right triangle where a and b are the lengths of the legs adjacent to the right angle, and c is the length of the hypotenuse.

The relationship of sides [latex]|{x}_{2}-{x}_{1}|[/latex] and [latex]|{y}_{2}-{y}_{1}|[/latex] to side d is the same as that of sides a and b to side c. We use the absolute value symbol to indicate that the length is a positive number because the absolute value of any number is positive. (For example, [latex]|-3|=3[/latex]. ) The symbols [latex]|{x}_{2}-{x}_{1}|[/latex] and [latex]|{y}_{2}-{y}_{1}|[/latex] indicate that the lengths of the sides of the triangle are positive. To find the length c, take the square root of both sides of the Pythagorean Theorem.

It follows that the distance formula is given as

We do not have to use the absolute value symbols in this definition because any number squared is positive.

Example: Finding the Distance between Two Locations

Let’s return to the situation introduced at the beginning of this section.

Tracie set out from Elmhurst, IL to go to Franklin Park. On the way, she made a few stops to do errands. Each stop is indicated by a red dot. Find the total distance that Tracie traveled. Compare this with the distance between her starting and final positions.

Show Solution

The first thing we should do is identify ordered pairs to describe each position. If we set the starting position at the origin, we can identify each of the other points by counting units east (right) and north (up) on the grid. For example, the first stop is 1 block east and 1 block north, so it is at [latex]\left(1,1\right)[/latex]. The next stop is 5 blocks to the east so it is at [latex]\left(5,1\right)[/latex]. After that, she traveled 3 blocks east and 2 blocks north to [latex]\left(8,3\right)[/latex]. Lastly, she traveled 4 blocks north to [latex]\left(8,7\right)[/latex]. We can label these points on the grid.

Next, we can calculate the distance. Note that each grid unit represents 1,000 feet.

• From her starting location to her first stop at [latex]\left(1,1\right)[/latex], Tracie might have driven north 1,000 feet and then east 1,000 feet, or vice versa. Either way, she drove 2,000 feet to her first stop.
• Her second stop is at [latex]\left(5,1\right)[/latex]. So from [latex]\left(1,1\right)[/latex] to [latex]\left(5,1\right)[/latex], Tracie drove east 4,000 feet.
• Her third stop is at [latex]\left(8,3\right)[/latex]. There are a number of routes from [latex]\left(5,1\right)[/latex] to [latex]\left(8,3\right)[/latex]. Whatever route Tracie decided to use, the distance is the same, as there are no angular streets between the two points. Let’s say she drove east 3,000 feet and then north 2,000 feet for a total of 5,000 feet.
• Tracie’s final stop is at [latex]\left(8,7\right)[/latex]. This is a straight drive north from [latex]\left(8,3\right)[/latex] for a total of 4,000 feet.

Next, we will add the distances listed in the table.

From/To	Number of Feet Driven
[latex]\left(0,0\right)[/latex] to [latex]\left(1,1\right)[/latex]	2,000
[latex]\left(1,1\right)[/latex] to [latex]\left(5,1\right)[/latex]	4,000
[latex]\left(5,1\right)[/latex] to [latex]\left(8,3\right)[/latex]	5,000
[latex]\left(8,3\right)[/latex] to [latex]\left(8,7\right)[/latex]	4,000
Total	15,000

The total distance Tracie drove is 15,000 feet or 2.84 miles. This is not, however, the actual distance between her starting and ending positions. To find this distance, we can use the distance formula between the points [latex]\left(0,0\right)[/latex] and [latex]\left(8,7\right)[/latex].

[latex]\begin{array}{l}d=\sqrt{{\left(8 - 0\right)}^{2}+{\left(7 - 0\right)}^{2}}\hfill \\ =\sqrt{64+49}\hfill \\ =\sqrt{113}\hfill \\ =10.63\text{ units}\hfill \end{array}[/latex]

At 1,000 feet per grid unit, the distance between Elmhurst, IL to Franklin Park is 10,630.14 feet, or 2.01 miles. The distance formula results in a shorter calculation because it is based on the hypotenuse of a right triangle, a straight diagonal from the origin to the point [latex]\left(8,7\right)[/latex]. Perhaps you have heard the saying “as the crow flies,” which means the shortest distance between two points because a crow can fly in a straight line even though a person on the ground has to travel a longer distance on existing roadways.

Using the Midpoint Formula

When the endpoints of a line segment are known, we can find the point midway between them. This point is known as the midpoint and the formula is known as the midpoint formula. Given the endpoints of a line segment, [latex]\left({x}_{1},{y}_{1}\right)[/latex] and [latex]\left({x}_{2},{y}_{2}\right)[/latex], the midpoint formula states how to find the coordinates of the midpoint [latex]M[/latex].

A graphical view of a midpoint is shown below. Notice that the line segments on either side of the midpoint are congruent.

Graphing Linear Equations

We can plot a set of points to represent an equation. When such an equation contains both an x variable and a y variable, it is called an equation in two variables. Its graph is called a graph in two variables. Any graph on a two-dimensional plane is a graph in two variables.

Suppose we want to graph the equation [latex]y=2x - 1[/latex]. We can begin by substituting a value for x into the equation and determining the resulting value of y. Each pair of x and y-values is an ordered pair that can be plotted. The table below lists values of x from –3 to 3 and the resulting values for y.

We can plot these points from the table. The points for this particular equation form a line, so we can connect them. This is not true for all equations.

Note that the x-values chosen are arbitrary regardless of the type of equation we are graphing. Of course, some situations may require particular values of x to be plotted in order to see a particular result. Otherwise, it is logical to choose values that can be calculated easily, and it is always a good idea to choose values that are both negative and positive. There is no rule dictating how many points to plot, although we need at least two to graph a line. Keep in mind, however, that the more points we plot, the more accurately we can sketch the graph.

Try It

Construct a table and graph the equation by plotting points: [latex]y=\frac{1}{2}x+2[/latex].

Show Solution

[latex]x[/latex]	[latex]y=\frac{1}{2}x+2[/latex]	[latex]\left(x,y\right)[/latex]
[latex]-2[/latex]	[latex]y=\frac{1}{2}\left(-2\right)+2=1[/latex]	[latex]\left(-2,1\right)[/latex]
[latex]-1[/latex]	[latex]y=\frac{1}{2}\left(-1\right)+2=\frac{3}{2}[/latex]	[latex]\left(-1,\frac{3}{2}\right)[/latex]
[latex]0[/latex]	[latex]y=\frac{1}{2}\left(0\right)+2=2[/latex]	[latex]\left(0,2\right)[/latex]
[latex]1[/latex]	[latex]y=\frac{1}{2}\left(1\right)+2=\frac{5}{2}[/latex]	[latex]\left(1,\frac{5}{2}\right)[/latex]
[latex]2[/latex]	[latex]y=\frac{1}{2}\left(2\right)+2=3[/latex]	[latex]\left(2,3\right)[/latex]

Using Intercepts to Plot Lines in the Coordinate Plane

The intercepts of a graph are points where the graph crosses the axes. The x-intercept is the point where the graph crosses the x-axis. At this point, the y-coordinate is zero. The y-intercept is the point where the graph crosses the y-axis. At this point, the x-coordinate is zero.

To determine the x-intercept, we set y equal to zero and solve for x. Similarly, to determine the y-intercept, we set x equal to zero and solve for y. For example, lets find the intercepts of the equation [latex]y=3x - 1[/latex].

To find the x-intercept, set [latex]y=0[/latex].

To find the y-intercept, set [latex]x=0[/latex].

We can confirm that our results make sense by observing a graph of the equation. Notice that the graph crosses the axes where we predicted it would.

Example: Finding the Intercepts of the Given Equation

Find the intercepts of the equation [latex]y=-3x - 4[/latex]. Then sketch the graph using only the intercepts.

Show Solution

Set [latex]y=0[/latex] to find the x-intercept.

[latex]\begin{array}{l}y=-3x - 4\hfill \\ 0=-3x - 4\hfill \\ 4=-3x\hfill \\ -\frac{4}{3}=x\hfill \\ \left(-\frac{4}{3},0\right)x\text{-intercept}\hfill \end{array}[/latex]

Set [latex]x=0[/latex] to find the y-intercept.

[latex]\begin{array}{l}y=-3x - 4\hfill \\ y=-3\left(0\right)-4\hfill \\ y=-4\hfill \\ \left(0,-4\right)y\text{-intercept}\hfill \end{array}[/latex]

Plot both points and draw a line passing through them.

Try It

Find the intercepts of the equation and sketch the graph: [latex]y=-\frac{3}{4}x+3[/latex].

Show Solution

x-intercept is [latex]\left(4,0\right)[/latex]; y-intercept is [latex]\left(0,3\right)[/latex].

Using a Graphing Utility to Plot Lines

Most graphing calculators require similar techniques to graph an equation. The equations sometimes have to be manipulated so they are written in the style y=_____. The TI-84 Plus and many other calculator makes and models have a mode function, which allows the window (the screen for viewing the graph) to be altered so the pertinent parts of a graph can be seen.

For example, the equation [latex]y=2x - 20[/latex] has been entered in the TI-84 Plus as shown below. The resulting graph is shown. Notice that we cannot see on the screen where the graph crosses the axes. The standard window screen on the TI-84 Plus shows [latex]-10\le x\le 10[/latex], and [latex]-10\le y\le 10[/latex].

(a) Enter the equation. (b) This is the graph in the original window. (c) These are the original settings.

By changing the window to show more of the positive x-axis and more of the negative y-axis, we have a much better view of the graph and the x and y-intercepts. See (a) and (b) below.

(a) This screen shows the new window settings. (b) We can clearly view the intercepts in the new window.

Example: Using a Graphing Utility to Graph an Equation

Use a graphing utility to graph the equation: [latex]y=-\frac{2}{3}x-\frac{4}{3}[/latex].

Show Solution

Enter the equation in the y= function of the calculator. Set the window settings so that both the x and y- intercepts are showing in the window.

• We can locate or plot points in the Cartesian coordinate system using ordered pairs which are defined as displacement from the x-axis and displacement from the y-axis.
• An equation can be graphed in the plane by creating a table of values and plotting points.
• Using a graphing calculator or a computer program makes graphing equations faster and more accurate. Equations usually have to be entered in the form y=_____.
• Finding the x- and y-intercepts can define the graph of a line. These are the points where the graph crosses the axes.
• The distance formula is derived from the Pythagorean Theorem and is used to find the length of a line segment.
• The midpoint formula provides a method of finding the coordinates of the midpoint by dividing the sum of the x-coordinates and the sum of the y-coordinates of the endpoints by 2.

Glossary

Cartesian coordinate system

a grid system designed with perpendicular axes invented by René Descartes

equation in two variables

a mathematical statement, typically written in x and y, in which two expressions are equal

distance formula

a formula that can be used to find the length of a line segment if the endpoints are known

graph in two variables

the graph of an equation in two variables, which is always shown in two variables in the two-dimensional plane

intercepts

the points at which the graph of an equation crosses the x-axis and the y-axis

midpoint formula

 a formula to find the point that divides a line segment into two parts of equal length

ordered pair

a pair of numbers indicating horizontal displacement and vertical displacement from the origin; also known as a coordinate pair, [latex]\left(x,y\right)[/latex]

origin

the point where the two axes cross in the center of the plane, described by the ordered pair [latex]\left(0,0\right)[/latex]

quadrant

one quarter of the coordinate plane, created when the axes divide the plane into four sections

x-axis

the common name of the horizontal axis on a coordinate plane; a number line increasing from left to right

x-coordinate

the first coordinate of an ordered pair, representing the horizontal displacement and direction from the origin

x-intercept

the point where a graph intersects the x-axis; an ordered pair with a y-coordinate of zero

y-axis

the common name of the vertical axis on a coordinate plane; a number line increasing from bottom to top

y-coordinate

 the second coordinate of an ordered pair, representing the vertical displacement and direction from the origin

y-intercept

a point where a graph intercepts the y-axis; an ordered pair with an x-coordinate of zero