{"id":2478,"date":"2016-08-22T21:22:01","date_gmt":"2016-08-22T21:22:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2478"},"modified":"2017-08-28T21:02:37","modified_gmt":"2017-08-28T21:02:37","slug":"the-science-of-chemistry","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/chapter\/the-science-of-chemistry\/","title":{"raw":"The Science of Chemistry","rendered":"The Science of Chemistry"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe teamwork involved in science research.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe how science information is shared.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the approach of the ancient Greek philosophers to understanding the world around them.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define inductive and deductive reasoning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the scientific method.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"x-ck12-TmF0dXJlIG9mIFNjaWVuY2U.\">Nature of Science<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>What can be accomplished through team work?<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NDBhNGE4ZjlkYTM3YWViNWNmN2JlMDMwN2QzMzI4ZDA.-wl5\">Most jobs to day involve a fair amount of meetings and team involvement.\u00a0 It doesn\u2019t matter what you do, you will spend a certain amount of time meeting with other people, sharing what you have done, planning projects, and organizing the work.\u00a0 Hardly anybody works by him or herself these days \u2013 everybody is part of a larger group.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210557\/20140811154950834466.jpeg\" alt=\"Drawing of group meeting and teamwork\" width=\"400\" \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NDQ3YWVhMmFhYzBlOTMwNmExZjFiMDc0ZGZkMGI1ZDM.-q2j\">Today\u2019s scientists rarely work alone.\u00a0 Rather, most scientists collaborate with one another as part of a group effort, no matter the setting.\u00a0 The majority of research scientists work either for a company such as DuPont Chemical Company in Wilmington, Delaware or for one of many universities, such as the California Institute of Technology.\u00a0 Working as part of a group has many advantages.\u00a0 Most scientific problems are so complex and time-consuming, that one person could not hope to address all of the issues by himself or herself.\u00a0 Instead, different members of a research group are each tasked with a particular small aspect of a larger research problem.\u00a0 Collaboration between members of the group is frequent.\u00a0 This occurs informally in the laboratory on an everyday basis.\u00a0 Research groups typically have regular meetings where one or more members of the group may give a presentation to the others on the status of the research that they are doing.\u00a0 Progress normally occurs in small steps rather than grand, sweeping discoveries, and that progress is helped along by the teamwork that comes from working as part of a group.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MDRiMDhjZDliODdmZTMzMGUzZGMwZjAzMmQ2NGUwNzU.-kx1\">Modern scientific research is usually expensive.\u00a0 Lab equipment, chemicals, research space, and the upkeep of technical instrumentation all costs money.\u00a0 So research groups need to raise money in order to continue their research.\u00a0 Much of that money comes from government sources, such as the National Science Foundation or the National Institute of Health, especially in the case of research being done at universities.\u00a0 Private companies can fund their own research, but may also seek outside funding as well.\u00a0 Scientists write <strong> grants <\/strong> explaining the goals of their research along with projected costs, and funding agencies make decisions on which research projects they would like to fund.\u00a0 The long-term viability of most research labs depends on the ability to get and maintain funding.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 id=\"x-ck12-OTBlNDg3YTI4NDI0NDgzZWZlODk4NmRlNTY4ZWQ3ZGI.-r32_10-axf\">Communicating Results<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Y2Q1YmQ1NDgzY2MwNjhlZWU2ZmQzMjljMzE3MmU1Y2M.-hc2\">Suppose that your research is a success.\u00a0 What now?\u00a0 Scientists communicate their results to one another and to the public at large in several ways.\u00a0 One is to publish their research findings in one of many publications called scientific <strong> journals<\/strong>.\u00a0 There are many hundreds of scientific journals covering every field of science imaginable.\u00a0 In chemistry, there is the \u201cJournal of the American Chemical Society,\u201d the \u201cJournal of Physical Chemistry,\u201d and the \u201cInorganic Chemistry,\u201d to name just a few.\u00a0 Some journals have a very narrow scope while others publish articles from many different sciences and appeal to a wider audience.\u00a0 Examples of the latter include the journals \u201cScience\u201d and \u201cNature.\u201d Journal articles are often very complex and detailed.\u00a0 They must be accurate, since the research field as a whole uses these journal articles as a way to make scientific progress.\u00a0 Therefore, journal articles are only published after having been extensively reviewed by other professional scientists in the same field.\u00a0 Reviewers have the power to make suggestions about the research or possibly question the validity of the author\u2019s conclusions.\u00a0 Only when the reviewers are satisfied that the research is correct, will the journal publish the article.\u00a0 In this way, all scientists can trust the research findings that they read about in journals.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MTFkZWZlNDcwNmRhYjFlMzFhMDBhMmYzNzRjOWU2MjQ.-zmn\">Scientists also communicate with one another by presenting their findings at international conferences.\u00a0 Some scientists are chosen to give a lecture at a conference, typically about research that has already been published.\u00a0 Many other scientists at the same conference will present their work at <strong> poster <\/strong> <strong> sessions <\/strong> .\u00a0 These poster sessions are more informal and may often represent research that is still in progress.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NGRkMjkzN2M1OGFkNzhlZjU4MmM5MDVhZTVmNDVhZGE.-cox\" class=\"x-ck12-img-postcard x-ck12-nofloat\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1ODQ2MDQ3Ny01LTY5LUMtSW50Q2gtMDEtMDEtMTItUHJlc2VudGF0aW9u\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210559\/20140811154950982722.jpeg\" alt=\"A scientific presentation\" width=\"500\" height=\"333\" longdesc=\"Scientific%20presentation.\" \/> Figure 1.\u00a0Scientific presentation.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul id=\"x-ck12-OWNlMTM1Nzk1ZGEwMDlmYjczYWRiYjQzMzRkYWI0M2M.-ad6\">\r\n \t<li>Scientific research today is a team effort.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Support for research usually comes from grants.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Findings are shared in meetings, conferences, and scientific publications.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Y2JlMjQ5M2YzMTNmNmRjMzNmZTI0MTMzYzcwM2IzZmY.-nsr\">Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NTk5Zjg4ZjQ3OTEyZTA4OTNiMzFlZTIwYTkxZDc4MGQ.-xto\"><a href=\"http:\/\/umech.mit.edu\/freeman\/6.021J\/2000\/writing.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> http:\/\/umech.mit.edu\/freeman\/6.021J\/2000\/writing.pdf <\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-OThiZjU5NDM5NWU0YWM0NzA2OGQ0ZWZmYWJhNThjNzg.-jeo\">\r\n \t<li>What is the purpose of the abstract?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What does the introduction do?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What does the Results section do? What does it not do?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-NTRkZWRlMWE1YTE2M2I4NGFiMDdmYTk1YjIwOTJkOGM.-awd\">\r\n \t<li>How is most scientific research carried out today?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How is research usually supported?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How do scientists share their findings?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"x-ck12-U2NpZW50aWZpYyBQcm9ibGVtIFNvbHZpbmc.\">Scientific Problem Solving<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>How can we use problem solving in our everyday routines?<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-ZmIwZjU5YzFmMDU4MmM0NGE0ZDgyOTUxNDEyZmQ3YTk.-yad\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210601\/20140811154951100459.jpeg\" alt=\"An alarm clock\" width=\"250\" height=\"187\" \/>One day you wake up and realize your clock radio did not turn on to get you out of bed.\u00a0 You are puzzled, so you decide to find out what happened.\u00a0 You list three possible explanations:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-ZWI4ZDI1YTY3MmNlMmU2YmE4ZDI0MGRhYTFlNDY5NjI.-m0z\">\r\n \t<li>There was a power failure and your radio cannot turn on..<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your little sister turned it off as a joke.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You did not set the alarm last night.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-ODU2MWRjOTczODNjNmMzNjVmMDNhYWUyZjkxNzM2YTE.-0ke\">Upon investigation you find that the clock is on, so there is no power failure.\u00a0 Your little sister was spending the night with a friend and could not have turned the alarm off.\u00a0 You notice that the alarm is not set \u2013 your forgetfulness made you late.\u00a0 You have used the scientific method to find an answer to a question.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NmYwZWM2MjhiZjg5M2QyNmVlZWFmMTdkMTM5Y2ZiZDE.-nes\">Humans have always wondered about the world around them. One of the questions of interest was (and still is) what is this world made of? Chemistry has been defined in various ways as the study of matter. What that matter consists of has been a source of debate over the centuries. One of the key arenas for this debate in the Western world was Greek philosophy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NGZmOWZkZGJkODkwY2Y5MWM5OTBhNzUyOTUzYzdiOWM.-wkd\" class=\"x-ck12-img-thumbnail x-ck12-nofloat\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"76\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1ODQ2MTE0MS05LTYyLUMtSW50Q2gtMDEtMDEtMTEtQXJpc3RvdGxl\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210603\/20140811154951185130.jpeg\" alt=\"Picture of Aristotle\" width=\"76\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Aristotle.\" \/> Figure 2.\u00a0Aristotle.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe basic approach of these philosophers to questions about the world was discussion and debate. There was no gathering of information to speak of, just talking. As a result, several ideas about matter were put forth, but never resolved. \u00a0The first philosopher to carry out the gathering of data was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). He recorded many observations on the weather, on plant and animal life and behavior, on physical motions, and a number of other topics. Aristotle could probably be considered the first \u201creal\u201d scientist since he made systematic observations of nature and tried to understand what he was seeing.\r\n<h3><strong>I<\/strong><strong>nductive and Deductive Reasoning<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MmVjMjZlYmJmNzIzOTBjNzRmZjY1YjIxN2M2ZTQ2ZDE.-75j\">Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are <strong> inductive <\/strong> <strong> reasoning <\/strong> and <strong> deductive <\/strong> <strong> reasoning <\/strong> . Inductive reasoning involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Deductive reasoning takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Both are used in the development of scientific ideas.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-OWViNGQzMDBhZTgyZjk4OGIzMzM2MTUzNDZhYzljYmU.-8ke\">Inductive reasoning first involves the collection of data. If I add sodium metal to water, I will observe a very violent reaction. Every time I repeat the process, I see the same thing happening. I draw a general conclusion from these observations: the addition of sodium to water results in a violent reaction.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MmM1OTIzNzJlMjM0ZjlhZmNkYjlhMTRmNzk5YmRkMGM.-int\">In deductive reasoning, I make a specific prediction based on a general principle. One general principle is that acids turn blue litmus paper red. If I have a bottle of liquid labeled \u201cacid,\u201d I expect the litmus paper to turn red when I immerse it in the liquid.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 id=\"x-ck12-YmI5MjBlNzI4ODU2NDQ0YjdhZDM3ZDA1MmRlZGY4ODM.-aeq_11-bkc\"><strong> The Idea of the Experiment <\/strong><\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"117\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1ODQ2MTMwMS03Ny0zMy1DLUludENoLTAxLTAxLTExLUJhY29u\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210604\/20140811154951310520.jpeg\" alt=\"Picture of Sir Francis Bacon\" width=\"117\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Sir%20Francis%20Bacon.\" \/> Figure 3.\u00a0Sir Francis Bacon.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Njg3MzFlNGFiNGFiZDFhZGJiZGU3OGNlYWUyYzQ2NGY.-k3a\">Inductive reasoning is at the heart of what we call the \u201c <strong> scientific method. <\/strong> \u201d In European culture, this approach was developed mainly by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. He advocated the use of inductive reasoning in every area of life, not just science. The scientific method as developed by Bacon and others involved several steps:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NjExNTBmODcyZDUwMjBmYzA5ZGE0OTlkNWE5Mjk3NGU.-83z\">\r\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-NjExNTBmODcyZDUwMjBmYzA5ZGE0OTlkNWE5Mjk3NGU.-38k\">\r\n \t<li>ask a question \u2013 identify the problem to be considered<\/li>\r\n \t<li>make observations \u2013 gather data that pertains to the question<\/li>\r\n \t<li>propose an explanation ( a hypothesis) for the observations<\/li>\r\n \t<li>make new observations to test the hypothesis further<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NzkzY2Q5MmZmZDQ1YjI4ODMzYWJjZDNiOGZjY2Q5Zjk.-auf\" class=\"x-ck12-img-thumbnail x-ck12-nofloat\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MjAxYWYwMDFhNGE5ZjVlZTg0ZjM1NTg3ODI4MjU5YWQ.-hqf\">Note that this should not be considered a \u201ccookbook\u201d for scientific research. Scientists do not sit down with their daily \u201cto do\u201d list and write down these steps. The steps may not necessarily be followed in order. But this does provide a general idea of how scientific research is usually done.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-OTEzNjBiZWIxYjg0MjNmNWI3MzdhMjNhNmU0M2JjNTk.-hvt\">When a hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly, it eventually becomes a theory \u2013 a general principle that is offered to explain natural phenomena. Note a key word \u2013 explanation. The theory offers a description of why something happens. A law, on the other hand, is a statement that is always true, but does not explain why. The law of gravity says a rock will fall when dropped, but does not explain why (gravitational theory is very complex and incomplete at present). The kinetic-molecular theory of gases, on the other hand, tells what happens when a gas is heated in a closed container (the pressure increases), but also explains why (the motions of the gas molecules are increased due to the change in temperature). Theories do not get \u201cpromoted\u201d to laws because laws do not answer the \u201cwhy\u201d question.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-ZGQyNjQ3NWEyN2MzMTAyMTg4MWE1Y2MxYzIyNmE2Y2U.-rg0\">\r\n<ul id=\"x-ck12-ZGQyNjQ3NWEyN2MzMTAyMTg4MWE1Y2MxYzIyNmE2Y2U.-796\">\r\n \t<li>The early Greek philosophers spend their time talking about nature, but did little or no actual exploration or investigation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>inductive reasoning \u2013 developing a general conclusion from a collection of observations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>deductive reasoning \u2013 making a specific statement based on a general principle.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>scientific method \u2013 a process of observation, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Y2JlMjQ5M2YzMTNmNmRjMzNmZTI0MTMzYzcwM2IzZmY.-dyx\">Read <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070118210756\/http:\/\/cti.itc.virginia.edu\/~meg3c\/classes\/tcc313\/200Rprojs\/lavoisier2\/home.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this page about Lavoisier<\/a>\u00a0below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-ZDRiMTJhY2UzZGY2NGUyZmVjNDBiNWM1ODQyYjBiMTA.-9ef\">\r\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-ZDRiMTJhY2UzZGY2NGUyZmVjNDBiNWM1ODQyYjBiMTA.-6bv\">\r\n \t<li>What was phlogiston?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>State two observations the phlogiston theory explained?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How did Lavoisier disprove the phlogiston theory?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-MjdjNjA1OWFkNmQ2ZmU4MjRkNjQwYzgxZTRhZjdjOGE.-atw\">\r\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-MjdjNjA1OWFkNmQ2ZmU4MjRkNjQwYzgxZTRhZjdjOGE.-ehd\">\r\n \t<li>What was the basic shortcoming of the Greek philosophers approach to studying the material world?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How did Aristotle improve the approach?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define \u201cinductive reasoning\u201d and give an example.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define \u201cdeductive reasoning\u201d and give an example.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the difference between a theory and a law?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"x-ck12-data-problem-set\">\r\n<h2 class=\"x-ck12-data-problem-set\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"x-ck12-data-vocabulary\">\r\n<ul id=\"x-ck12-ZTEyYzdiNTc5YWNmMTI4NWYxZjNhNWEwYTgwMGQ2YWQ.-hnb\">\r\n \t<li><strong>deductive reasoning: <\/strong> Takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Used in the development of scientific ideas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>grant:\u00a0 <\/strong> Scientists write grants explaining the goals of their research along with projected costs, and funding agencies make decisions on which research projects they would like to fund. The long-term viability of most research labs depends on the ability to get and maintain funding.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>inductive reasoning: <\/strong> Involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Used in the development of scientific ideas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> journal: <\/strong> \u00a0Scientists publish their research findings in one of many publications called scientific journals. They must be accurate, since the research field as a whole uses these journal articles as a way to make scientific progress.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> peer review: <\/strong> \u00a0When colleagues assess your work.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> poster session: <\/strong> \u00a0Some scientists are chosen to lecture at a conference (typically about research that has already been published), while others will present their work at poster sessions. \u00a0These poster sessions are more informal and may often represent research that is still in progress.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong style=\"line-height: 1.5;\">scientific method: <\/strong><span style=\"line-height: 1.5;\"> This approach was developed by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. Inductive reasoning is at the heart. of this method. The steps include: ask a question (identify the problem to be considered), make observations (gather data that pertains to the question), propose an explanation (a hypothesis) for the observations, make new observations to test the hypothesis further.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NDZmODhlYWZjOWRkNTIzMGNiNGFkMTg0MjU5ZTQwNjA.-t4o\" class=\"x-ck12-data-vocabulary x-ck12-indent\">\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"836080\"]Show References[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"836080\"]\r\n<h2>References<\/h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Courtesy of Hope Alexander, Environmental Protection Agency.<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:INDUSTRIAL_CONTAMINATION_OF_THE_ARTHUR_KILL_RIVER_AT_BAYONNE,_NEW_JERSEY_IN_THE_NEW_YORK_METROPOLITAN_AREA._RIVERS_IN..._-_NARA_-_555788.tif\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:INDUSTRIAL_CONTAMINATION_OF_THE_ARTHUR_KILL_RIVER_AT_BAYONNE,_NEW_JERSEY_IN_THE_NEW_YORK_METROPOLITAN_AREA._RIVERS_IN..._-_NARA_-_555788.tif <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>User:Lack Thereof\/Wikipedia. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pallet_of_scrap_lead-acid_batteries_%28left_side%29.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pallet_of_scrap_lead-acid_batteries_%28left_side%29.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gerd Altmann. <a href=\"http:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/team-human-silhouettes-drawing-123085\/\">http:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/team-human-silhouettes-drawing-123085\/ <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Courtesy of Journalist 1st Class Dave Kaylor, U.S. Navy.<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Navy_060612-N-8110K-048_Deputy_Commander,_Ship_Design,_Integration_and_Engineering,_Naval_Sea_Systems_Command,_Rear_Adm._Kevin_McCoy,_presents_a_lecture_on_the_new_Navy.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Navy_060612-N-8110K-048_Deputy_Commander,_Ship_Design,_Integration_and_Engineering,_Naval_Sea_Systems_Command,_Rear_Adm._Kevin_McCoy,_presents_a_lecture_on_the_new_Navy.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Derek Jensen (Wikimedia: Tysto). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital-clock-alarm.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital-clock-alarm.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Raphael. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristotle_by_Raphael.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristotle_by_Raphael.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Paul van Somer. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sir_Francis_Bacon.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sir_Francis_Bacon.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe teamwork involved in science research.<\/li>\n<li>Describe how science information is shared.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the approach of the ancient Greek philosophers to understanding the world around them.<\/li>\n<li>Define inductive and deductive reasoning.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the scientific method.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"x-ck12-TmF0dXJlIG9mIFNjaWVuY2U.\">Nature of Science<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>What can be accomplished through team work?<\/h3>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NDBhNGE4ZjlkYTM3YWViNWNmN2JlMDMwN2QzMzI4ZDA.-wl5\">Most jobs to day involve a fair amount of meetings and team involvement.\u00a0 It doesn\u2019t matter what you do, you will spend a certain amount of time meeting with other people, sharing what you have done, planning projects, and organizing the work.\u00a0 Hardly anybody works by him or herself these days \u2013 everybody is part of a larger group.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210557\/20140811154950834466.jpeg\" alt=\"Drawing of group meeting and teamwork\" width=\"400\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NDQ3YWVhMmFhYzBlOTMwNmExZjFiMDc0ZGZkMGI1ZDM.-q2j\">Today\u2019s scientists rarely work alone.\u00a0 Rather, most scientists collaborate with one another as part of a group effort, no matter the setting.\u00a0 The majority of research scientists work either for a company such as DuPont Chemical Company in Wilmington, Delaware or for one of many universities, such as the California Institute of Technology.\u00a0 Working as part of a group has many advantages.\u00a0 Most scientific problems are so complex and time-consuming, that one person could not hope to address all of the issues by himself or herself.\u00a0 Instead, different members of a research group are each tasked with a particular small aspect of a larger research problem.\u00a0 Collaboration between members of the group is frequent.\u00a0 This occurs informally in the laboratory on an everyday basis.\u00a0 Research groups typically have regular meetings where one or more members of the group may give a presentation to the others on the status of the research that they are doing.\u00a0 Progress normally occurs in small steps rather than grand, sweeping discoveries, and that progress is helped along by the teamwork that comes from working as part of a group.<\/p>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MDRiMDhjZDliODdmZTMzMGUzZGMwZjAzMmQ2NGUwNzU.-kx1\">Modern scientific research is usually expensive.\u00a0 Lab equipment, chemicals, research space, and the upkeep of technical instrumentation all costs money.\u00a0 So research groups need to raise money in order to continue their research.\u00a0 Much of that money comes from government sources, such as the National Science Foundation or the National Institute of Health, especially in the case of research being done at universities.\u00a0 Private companies can fund their own research, but may also seek outside funding as well.\u00a0 Scientists write <strong> grants <\/strong> explaining the goals of their research along with projected costs, and funding agencies make decisions on which research projects they would like to fund.\u00a0 The long-term viability of most research labs depends on the ability to get and maintain funding.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"x-ck12-OTBlNDg3YTI4NDI0NDgzZWZlODk4NmRlNTY4ZWQ3ZGI.-r32_10-axf\">Communicating Results<\/h3>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Y2Q1YmQ1NDgzY2MwNjhlZWU2ZmQzMjljMzE3MmU1Y2M.-hc2\">Suppose that your research is a success.\u00a0 What now?\u00a0 Scientists communicate their results to one another and to the public at large in several ways.\u00a0 One is to publish their research findings in one of many publications called scientific <strong> journals<\/strong>.\u00a0 There are many hundreds of scientific journals covering every field of science imaginable.\u00a0 In chemistry, there is the \u201cJournal of the American Chemical Society,\u201d the \u201cJournal of Physical Chemistry,\u201d and the \u201cInorganic Chemistry,\u201d to name just a few.\u00a0 Some journals have a very narrow scope while others publish articles from many different sciences and appeal to a wider audience.\u00a0 Examples of the latter include the journals \u201cScience\u201d and \u201cNature.\u201d Journal articles are often very complex and detailed.\u00a0 They must be accurate, since the research field as a whole uses these journal articles as a way to make scientific progress.\u00a0 Therefore, journal articles are only published after having been extensively reviewed by other professional scientists in the same field.\u00a0 Reviewers have the power to make suggestions about the research or possibly question the validity of the author\u2019s conclusions.\u00a0 Only when the reviewers are satisfied that the research is correct, will the journal publish the article.\u00a0 In this way, all scientists can trust the research findings that they read about in journals.<\/p>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MTFkZWZlNDcwNmRhYjFlMzFhMDBhMmYzNzRjOWU2MjQ.-zmn\">Scientists also communicate with one another by presenting their findings at international conferences.\u00a0 Some scientists are chosen to give a lecture at a conference, typically about research that has already been published.\u00a0 Many other scientists at the same conference will present their work at <strong> poster <\/strong> <strong> sessions <\/strong> .\u00a0 These poster sessions are more informal and may often represent research that is still in progress.<\/p>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NGRkMjkzN2M1OGFkNzhlZjU4MmM5MDVhZTVmNDVhZGE.-cox\" class=\"x-ck12-img-postcard x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<div style=\"width: 510px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1ODQ2MDQ3Ny01LTY5LUMtSW50Q2gtMDEtMDEtMTItUHJlc2VudGF0aW9u\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210559\/20140811154950982722.jpeg\" alt=\"A scientific presentation\" width=\"500\" height=\"333\" longdesc=\"Scientific%20presentation.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1.\u00a0Scientific presentation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul id=\"x-ck12-OWNlMTM1Nzk1ZGEwMDlmYjczYWRiYjQzMzRkYWI0M2M.-ad6\">\n<li>Scientific research today is a team effort.<\/li>\n<li>Support for research usually comes from grants.<\/li>\n<li>Findings are shared in meetings, conferences, and scientific publications.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Y2JlMjQ5M2YzMTNmNmRjMzNmZTI0MTMzYzcwM2IzZmY.-nsr\">Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NTk5Zjg4ZjQ3OTEyZTA4OTNiMzFlZTIwYTkxZDc4MGQ.-xto\"><a href=\"http:\/\/umech.mit.edu\/freeman\/6.021J\/2000\/writing.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> http:\/\/umech.mit.edu\/freeman\/6.021J\/2000\/writing.pdf <\/a><\/p>\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-OThiZjU5NDM5NWU0YWM0NzA2OGQ0ZWZmYWJhNThjNzg.-jeo\">\n<li>What is the purpose of the abstract?<\/li>\n<li>What does the introduction do?<\/li>\n<li>What does the Results section do? What does it not do?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-NTRkZWRlMWE1YTE2M2I4NGFiMDdmYTk1YjIwOTJkOGM.-awd\">\n<li>How is most scientific research carried out today?<\/li>\n<li>How is research usually supported?<\/li>\n<li>How do scientists share their findings?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"x-ck12-U2NpZW50aWZpYyBQcm9ibGVtIFNvbHZpbmc.\">Scientific Problem Solving<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>How can we use problem solving in our everyday routines?<\/h3>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-ZmIwZjU5YzFmMDU4MmM0NGE0ZDgyOTUxNDEyZmQ3YTk.-yad\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210601\/20140811154951100459.jpeg\" alt=\"An alarm clock\" width=\"250\" height=\"187\" \/>One day you wake up and realize your clock radio did not turn on to get you out of bed.\u00a0 You are puzzled, so you decide to find out what happened.\u00a0 You list three possible explanations:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-ZWI4ZDI1YTY3MmNlMmU2YmE4ZDI0MGRhYTFlNDY5NjI.-m0z\">\n<li>There was a power failure and your radio cannot turn on..<\/li>\n<li>Your little sister turned it off as a joke.<\/li>\n<li>You did not set the alarm last night.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-ODU2MWRjOTczODNjNmMzNjVmMDNhYWUyZjkxNzM2YTE.-0ke\">Upon investigation you find that the clock is on, so there is no power failure.\u00a0 Your little sister was spending the night with a friend and could not have turned the alarm off.\u00a0 You notice that the alarm is not set \u2013 your forgetfulness made you late.\u00a0 You have used the scientific method to find an answer to a question.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-NmYwZWM2MjhiZjg5M2QyNmVlZWFmMTdkMTM5Y2ZiZDE.-nes\">Humans have always wondered about the world around them. One of the questions of interest was (and still is) what is this world made of? Chemistry has been defined in various ways as the study of matter. What that matter consists of has been a source of debate over the centuries. One of the key arenas for this debate in the Western world was Greek philosophy.<\/p>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NGZmOWZkZGJkODkwY2Y5MWM5OTBhNzUyOTUzYzdiOWM.-wkd\" class=\"x-ck12-img-thumbnail x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<div style=\"width: 86px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1ODQ2MTE0MS05LTYyLUMtSW50Q2gtMDEtMDEtMTEtQXJpc3RvdGxl\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210603\/20140811154951185130.jpeg\" alt=\"Picture of Aristotle\" width=\"76\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Aristotle.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2.\u00a0Aristotle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The basic approach of these philosophers to questions about the world was discussion and debate. There was no gathering of information to speak of, just talking. As a result, several ideas about matter were put forth, but never resolved. \u00a0The first philosopher to carry out the gathering of data was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). He recorded many observations on the weather, on plant and animal life and behavior, on physical motions, and a number of other topics. Aristotle could probably be considered the first \u201creal\u201d scientist since he made systematic observations of nature and tried to understand what he was seeing.<\/p>\n<h3><strong>I<\/strong><strong>nductive and Deductive Reasoning<\/strong><\/h3>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MmVjMjZlYmJmNzIzOTBjNzRmZjY1YjIxN2M2ZTQ2ZDE.-75j\">Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are <strong> inductive <\/strong> <strong> reasoning <\/strong> and <strong> deductive <\/strong> <strong> reasoning <\/strong> . Inductive reasoning involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Deductive reasoning takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Both are used in the development of scientific ideas.<\/p>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-OWViNGQzMDBhZTgyZjk4OGIzMzM2MTUzNDZhYzljYmU.-8ke\">Inductive reasoning first involves the collection of data. If I add sodium metal to water, I will observe a very violent reaction. Every time I repeat the process, I see the same thing happening. I draw a general conclusion from these observations: the addition of sodium to water results in a violent reaction.<\/p>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MmM1OTIzNzJlMjM0ZjlhZmNkYjlhMTRmNzk5YmRkMGM.-int\">In deductive reasoning, I make a specific prediction based on a general principle. One general principle is that acids turn blue litmus paper red. If I have a bottle of liquid labeled \u201cacid,\u201d I expect the litmus paper to turn red when I immerse it in the liquid.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"x-ck12-YmI5MjBlNzI4ODU2NDQ0YjdhZDM3ZDA1MmRlZGY4ODM.-aeq_11-bkc\"><strong> The Idea of the Experiment <\/strong><\/h3>\n<div style=\"width: 127px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1ODQ2MTMwMS03Ny0zMy1DLUludENoLTAxLTAxLTExLUJhY29u\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19210604\/20140811154951310520.jpeg\" alt=\"Picture of Sir Francis Bacon\" width=\"117\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Sir%20Francis%20Bacon.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3.\u00a0Sir Francis Bacon.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Njg3MzFlNGFiNGFiZDFhZGJiZGU3OGNlYWUyYzQ2NGY.-k3a\">Inductive reasoning is at the heart of what we call the \u201c <strong> scientific method. <\/strong> \u201d In European culture, this approach was developed mainly by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. He advocated the use of inductive reasoning in every area of life, not just science. The scientific method as developed by Bacon and others involved several steps:<\/p>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NjExNTBmODcyZDUwMjBmYzA5ZGE0OTlkNWE5Mjk3NGU.-83z\">\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-NjExNTBmODcyZDUwMjBmYzA5ZGE0OTlkNWE5Mjk3NGU.-38k\">\n<li>ask a question \u2013 identify the problem to be considered<\/li>\n<li>make observations \u2013 gather data that pertains to the question<\/li>\n<li>propose an explanation ( a hypothesis) for the observations<\/li>\n<li>make new observations to test the hypothesis further<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NzkzY2Q5MmZmZDQ1YjI4ODMzYWJjZDNiOGZjY2Q5Zjk.-auf\" class=\"x-ck12-img-thumbnail x-ck12-nofloat\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-MjAxYWYwMDFhNGE5ZjVlZTg0ZjM1NTg3ODI4MjU5YWQ.-hqf\">Note that this should not be considered a \u201ccookbook\u201d for scientific research. Scientists do not sit down with their daily \u201cto do\u201d list and write down these steps. The steps may not necessarily be followed in order. But this does provide a general idea of how scientific research is usually done.<\/p>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-OTEzNjBiZWIxYjg0MjNmNWI3MzdhMjNhNmU0M2JjNTk.-hvt\">When a hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly, it eventually becomes a theory \u2013 a general principle that is offered to explain natural phenomena. Note a key word \u2013 explanation. The theory offers a description of why something happens. A law, on the other hand, is a statement that is always true, but does not explain why. The law of gravity says a rock will fall when dropped, but does not explain why (gravitational theory is very complex and incomplete at present). The kinetic-molecular theory of gases, on the other hand, tells what happens when a gas is heated in a closed container (the pressure increases), but also explains why (the motions of the gas molecules are increased due to the change in temperature). Theories do not get \u201cpromoted\u201d to laws because laws do not answer the \u201cwhy\u201d question.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-ZGQyNjQ3NWEyN2MzMTAyMTg4MWE1Y2MxYzIyNmE2Y2U.-rg0\">\n<ul id=\"x-ck12-ZGQyNjQ3NWEyN2MzMTAyMTg4MWE1Y2MxYzIyNmE2Y2U.-796\">\n<li>The early Greek philosophers spend their time talking about nature, but did little or no actual exploration or investigation.<\/li>\n<li>inductive reasoning \u2013 developing a general conclusion from a collection of observations.<\/li>\n<li>deductive reasoning \u2013 making a specific statement based on a general principle.<\/li>\n<li>scientific method \u2013 a process of observation, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p id=\"x-ck12-Y2JlMjQ5M2YzMTNmNmRjMzNmZTI0MTMzYzcwM2IzZmY.-dyx\">Read <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070118210756\/http:\/\/cti.itc.virginia.edu\/~meg3c\/classes\/tcc313\/200Rprojs\/lavoisier2\/home.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this page about Lavoisier<\/a>\u00a0below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-ZDRiMTJhY2UzZGY2NGUyZmVjNDBiNWM1ODQyYjBiMTA.-9ef\">\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-ZDRiMTJhY2UzZGY2NGUyZmVjNDBiNWM1ODQyYjBiMTA.-6bv\">\n<li>What was phlogiston?<\/li>\n<li>State two observations the phlogiston theory explained?<\/li>\n<li>How did Lavoisier disprove the phlogiston theory?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-MjdjNjA1OWFkNmQ2ZmU4MjRkNjQwYzgxZTRhZjdjOGE.-atw\">\n<ol id=\"x-ck12-MjdjNjA1OWFkNmQ2ZmU4MjRkNjQwYzgxZTRhZjdjOGE.-ehd\">\n<li>What was the basic shortcoming of the Greek philosophers approach to studying the material world?<\/li>\n<li>How did Aristotle improve the approach?<\/li>\n<li>Define \u201cinductive reasoning\u201d and give an example.<\/li>\n<li>Define \u201cdeductive reasoning\u201d and give an example.<\/li>\n<li>What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?<\/li>\n<li>What is the difference between a theory and a law?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"x-ck12-data-problem-set\">\n<h2 class=\"x-ck12-data-problem-set\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<div class=\"x-ck12-data-vocabulary\">\n<ul id=\"x-ck12-ZTEyYzdiNTc5YWNmMTI4NWYxZjNhNWEwYTgwMGQ2YWQ.-hnb\">\n<li><strong>deductive reasoning: <\/strong> Takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Used in the development of scientific ideas.<\/li>\n<li><strong>grant:\u00a0 <\/strong> Scientists write grants explaining the goals of their research along with projected costs, and funding agencies make decisions on which research projects they would like to fund. The long-term viability of most research labs depends on the ability to get and maintain funding.<\/li>\n<li><strong>inductive reasoning: <\/strong> Involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Used in the development of scientific ideas.<\/li>\n<li><strong> journal: <\/strong> \u00a0Scientists publish their research findings in one of many publications called scientific journals. They must be accurate, since the research field as a whole uses these journal articles as a way to make scientific progress.<\/li>\n<li><strong> peer review: <\/strong> \u00a0When colleagues assess your work.<\/li>\n<li><strong> poster session: <\/strong> \u00a0Some scientists are chosen to lecture at a conference (typically about research that has already been published), while others will present their work at poster sessions. \u00a0These poster sessions are more informal and may often represent research that is still in progress.<\/li>\n<li><strong style=\"line-height: 1.5;\">scientific method: <\/strong><span style=\"line-height: 1.5;\"> This approach was developed by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. Inductive reasoning is at the heart. of this method. The steps include: ask a question (identify the problem to be considered), make observations (gather data that pertains to the question), propose an explanation (a hypothesis) for the observations, make new observations to test the hypothesis further.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"x-ck12-NDZmODhlYWZjOWRkNTIzMGNiNGFkMTg0MjU5ZTQwNjA.-t4o\" class=\"x-ck12-data-vocabulary x-ck12-indent\">\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q836080\">Show References<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q836080\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<h2>References<\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li>Courtesy of Hope Alexander, Environmental Protection Agency.<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:INDUSTRIAL_CONTAMINATION_OF_THE_ARTHUR_KILL_RIVER_AT_BAYONNE,_NEW_JERSEY_IN_THE_NEW_YORK_METROPOLITAN_AREA._RIVERS_IN..._-_NARA_-_555788.tif\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:INDUSTRIAL_CONTAMINATION_OF_THE_ARTHUR_KILL_RIVER_AT_BAYONNE,_NEW_JERSEY_IN_THE_NEW_YORK_METROPOLITAN_AREA._RIVERS_IN&#8230;_-_NARA_-_555788.tif <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>User:Lack Thereof\/Wikipedia. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pallet_of_scrap_lead-acid_batteries_%28left_side%29.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pallet_of_scrap_lead-acid_batteries_%28left_side%29.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Gerd Altmann. <a href=\"http:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/team-human-silhouettes-drawing-123085\/\">http:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/team-human-silhouettes-drawing-123085\/ <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Courtesy of Journalist 1st Class Dave Kaylor, U.S. Navy.<a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Navy_060612-N-8110K-048_Deputy_Commander,_Ship_Design,_Integration_and_Engineering,_Naval_Sea_Systems_Command,_Rear_Adm._Kevin_McCoy,_presents_a_lecture_on_the_new_Navy.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:US_Navy_060612-N-8110K-048_Deputy_Commander,_Ship_Design,_Integration_and_Engineering,_Naval_Sea_Systems_Command,_Rear_Adm._Kevin_McCoy,_presents_a_lecture_on_the_new_Navy.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Derek Jensen (Wikimedia: Tysto). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital-clock-alarm.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital-clock-alarm.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Raphael. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristotle_by_Raphael.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristotle_by_Raphael.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Paul van Somer. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sir_Francis_Bacon.jpg\">http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sir_Francis_Bacon.jpg <\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2478\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Chemistry Concepts Intermediate. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Calbreath, Baxter, et al.. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CK12.org. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/book\/CK-12-Chemistry-Concepts-Intermediate\/\">http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/book\/CK-12-Chemistry-Concepts-Intermediate\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t 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