{"id":461,"date":"2014-08-12T03:10:53","date_gmt":"2014-08-12T03:10:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/cheminter\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=461"},"modified":"2017-08-30T22:45:26","modified_gmt":"2017-08-30T22:45:26","slug":"chemical-nomenclature","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/chapter\/chemical-nomenclature\/","title":{"raw":"Chemical Nomenclature","rendered":"Chemical Nomenclature"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>Molecular Formula<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define molecule.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define molecular formula.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe how to write molecular formulas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Why are music notes a unique \"language\"?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211250\/20140811155212607182.jpeg\" alt=\"Music is a unique language like chemical formulas\" width=\"560\" \/>\r\n\r\nThere are many \u201cuniversal languages\u201d in the world. Musicians of every culture recognize the music embodied in a series of notes on a staff.\r\n\r\nThis passage from a Bach cello suite could be played by any trained musician from any country, because there is agreement as to what the symbols on the page mean. In the same way, molecules are represented using symbols that all chemists agree upon.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nA <strong> molecule <\/strong> is two or more atoms that have been chemically combined. A <strong> molecular <\/strong> <strong> formula <\/strong> is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of the compound. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen as shown below:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211251\/20140811155212743092.png\" alt=\"Molecular formula of ammonia\" width=\"400\" \/>\r\n\r\nNote from the example that there are some standard rules to follow in writing molecular formulas. The arrangements of the elements depend on the particular structure, so we will not concern ourselves with that point right now. The number of atoms of each kind is indicated by a subscript following the atom. If there is only one atom, no number is written. If there is more than one atom of a specific kind, the number is written as a subscript following the atom. We would not write N<sub>3<\/sub>H for ammonia, because that would mean that there are three nitrogen atoms and one hydrogen atom in the molecule, which is incorrect.\r\n\r\nThe molecular formula does not tell us anything about the shape of the molecule or where the different atoms are. The molecular formula for sucrose (table sugar) is C<sub>12<\/sub>H<sub>22<\/sub>O<sub>11<\/sub>. This simply tells us the number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the molecule. There is nothing said about where the individual atoms are located. We need a much more complicated formula (shown below) to communicate that information. <em>\r\n<\/em>\r\n\r\n<strong> <img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211253\/20140811155212825865.png\" alt=\"Structural formula of sucrose\" width=\"250\" \/>\r\n<\/strong>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A molecular formula tells us what atoms and how many of each type of atom are present in a molecule.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If only one atom of a specific type is present, no subscript is used.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>For atoms that have two or more present, a subscript is written after the symbol for that atom.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Molecular formulas do not indicate how the atoms are arranged in the molecule.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/composition\/formmolcmpds.html\"> http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/composition\/formmolcmpds.html <\/a>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>How many carbon atoms and how many hydrogen atoms are in the benzene molecule?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many oxygen atoms are in one molecule of water?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many oxygen atoms are in one molecule of acetic acid?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What does a molecular formula tell us?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What does a molecular formula not tell us?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What do the subscripts mean in a molecular formula?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If I wrote C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>11<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub>C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>11<\/sub>O<sub>6 <\/sub> as the molecular formula for sucrose, would that be correct? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sometimes the formula for acetic acid is written CH<sub>3<\/sub>COOH. Is this a true molecular formula?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> molecule: <\/strong> Two or more atoms that have been chemically combined.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> molecular formula: <\/strong> A chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of the compound.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Empirical Formula<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define empirical formula.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe how to determine the empirical formula for a compound.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>What might the scientists in this picture be discussing?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Lavoisier Sketch\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211254\/20140811155213016613.png\" alt=\"Antoine Lavoisier's laboratory\" width=\"400\" \/>\r\n\r\nWhen the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier conducted his experiments, he did not know what the products of reactions were going to be. He had to isolate the material (whether he was heating mercury or measuring gases from breathing) and then study its elemental composition before he could understand the processes that were occurring.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nDiscovering that a new compound exists is the start of a long research project. In order to make this new compound in the lab, we need to know a lot about its structure. Often, the place to start is to determine the elements in the material. Then we can find out the relative amounts of each element to continue our evaluation of this new material.\r\n\r\nAn <strong> empirical <\/strong> <strong> formula <\/strong> is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio. Glucose is an important simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula is C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>12<\/sub>O<sub>6<\/sub>. Since each of the subscripts is divisible by 6, the empirical formula for glucose is CH<sub>2<\/sub>O. When chemists analyze an unknown compound, often the first step is to determine its empirical formula. There are a great many compounds whose molecular and empirical formulas are the same. If the molecular formula cannot be simplified into a smaller whole-number ratio, as in the case of H<sub>2<\/sub>O or P<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub>, then the empirical formula is also the molecular formula.\r\n\r\nHow would we determine an empirical formula for a compound? Let\u2019s take a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. We can analyze the relative amounts of each element in the compound. When we get a percent figure for each element, we now know how many grams of each are in 100 grams of the original material. This allows us to determine the number of moles for each element. The ratios can then be reduced to small whole numbers to give the empirical formula. If we wanted a molecular formula, we would need to determine the molecular weight of the compound.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The empirical formula tells the lowest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The empirical formula does not show the actual number of atoms.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nRead <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160116212137\/http:\/\/pages.towson.edu\/ladon\/empiric.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this page on empirical formulas<\/a> to answer the following questions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>How is an empirical formula calculated?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How is the number of moles determined from the percent composition?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Define \u201cempirical formula.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Why is C <sub> 6 <\/sub> H <sub> 12 <\/sub> O <sub> 6 <\/sub> not considered to be an empirical formula for glucose?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Can the empirical formula for a compound be the same as the molecular formula?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What do we need to know in order to determine a molecular formula from an empirical formula?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Give three examples of compounds whose empirical formulas are the same as their molecular formulas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> empirical formula: <\/strong> A\u00a0formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Cations<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define cation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how cations are formed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the naming of cations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe how cations are designated.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Have you ever gone digging for gold?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"alignright\" title=\"Gold Nuggets\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211255\/20140811155213159859.jpeg\" alt=\"Native gold nuggets\" width=\"200\" height=\"194\" \/>When the prospectors during the California Gold Rush (1848\u20131855) searched for gold nuggets in the earth, they were able to find these nuggets because gold is an unreactive material that exists in its elemental state in many places.\r\n\r\nNot everyone was fortunate enough to find large nuggets such as those shown, but a number of these miners did become very wealthy (of course, a large number of others went back home broke).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nMany of the elements we know about do not exist in their native form. They are so reactive that they are found only in compounds. These non-elemental forms are known as ions. Their properties are very different from those of the elements they come from. The term comes from a Greek word meaning \u201cmove\u201d and was first coined by Michael Faraday, who studied the movement of materials in an electrical field.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"512\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-Q2F0aW9uX0Zvcm1hdGlvbg..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211256\/20140811155213284991.jpeg\" alt=\"Electron configuration of sodium metal and sodium cation\" width=\"512\" height=\"304\" longdesc=\"Sodium%20loses%20an%20electron%20to%20become%20a%20cation.\" \/> Figure 1.\u00a0Sodium loses an electron to become a cation.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSome elements lose one or more electrons in forming ions. These ions are known as \u201c<strong>cations<\/strong>\u201d because they are positively charged and migrate toward the negative electrode (<strong>cathode<\/strong>) in an electrical field. Looking at the periodic table below, we know that the group 1 elements are all characterized by having one <em> s <\/em> electron in the outer orbit and group 2 elements have two <em> s <\/em> electrons in the outer orbit. These electrons are loosely attached to the atom and can easily be removed, leaving more protons in the atom that there are electrons, so the resulting ion has a positive charge. Cations can also be formed from electron loss to many of the transition elements.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"512\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-SW50Q2gtMDYtMDUtRWxlY3Ryb24tY29uZi10YWJsZQ..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211258\/20140811155214072785.png\" alt=\"The periodic table\" width=\"512\" height=\"335\" longdesc=\"Periodic%20table%20of%20elements%2C%20notated%20with%20group%20numbers.\" \/> Figure 2.\u00a0Periodic table of elements, notated with group numbers.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe cations are designated by the symbol for the parent element and a plus charge as a superscript after the element symbol: the potassium cation would be indicated as K<sup>+<\/sup>. Note that the charge is placed after the symbol and not before it. The potassium ion is <strong> monovalent<\/strong>, meaning that it has lost one electron and has a +1 charge. The symbol for the magnesium cation would be Mg<sup>2+ <\/sup> or Mg<sup>++ <\/sup> to indicate that it has lost two electrons and has a +2 charge, so the magnesium cation would be referred to as a <strong> divalent <\/strong> cation.\r\n\r\nThe cations are simply named as the parent element. The sodium cation is still called \u201csodium.\u201d Often, the charge would be attached for clarity, so the sodium cation might be referred to as \u201csodium one plus.\u201d\r\n<h3>Applications of Cations<\/h3>\r\nCations play important roles in our daily lives. Sodium, potassium, and magnesium ions are essential for such processes as blood pressure regulation and muscle contraction. Calcium ion is an important part of bone structure. Sodium ions can used in water softeners to remove other harmful elements. We put sodium chloride (table salt) on our food and use it as a preservative.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Cations are formed by the loss of one or two electrons from an element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Groups 1 and 2 elements form cations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cations are named according to the parent element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cation charges are indicated with a superscript following the chemical symbol.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/dl.clackamas.edu\/ch104-07\/cations.htm\"> http:\/\/dl.clackamas.edu\/ch104-07\/cations.htm <\/a>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>How many electrons are there in the outer shell of Group IA elements?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the charge of Group IA ions?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many electrons are there in the outer shell of Group IIA elements?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the charge of Group IIA ions?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is an ion?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the cathode?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the symbol for the barium cation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the symbol for the cesium cation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List three ways cations are useful.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> cation: <\/strong> Ions known as cations are because they are positively charged and migrate toward the negative electrode (cathode) in an electrical field.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> monovalent: <\/strong> Has a +1 charge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> divalent: <\/strong> Has a +2 charge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> cathode: <\/strong> Negative electrode.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Anions<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define anion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how anions are formed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe anion nomenclature.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List uses for anions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>What does the amount of salt in seaweed tell us?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Seaweed\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211259\/20140811155214137006.jpeg\" alt=\"Iodine can be found in seaweed\" width=\"200\" \/>\r\n\r\nBefore iodized salt was developed, some people experienced a number of developmental difficulties, including problems with thyroid gland function and mental retardation. In the 1920s, we learned that these conditions could usually be treated easily with the addition of iodide anion to the diet. One easy way to increase iodide intake was to add the anion to table salt. This simple step greatly enhanced health and development. Large amounts of iodide ion are also found in seaweed such as kelp (see picture above) and saltwater fish.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhen a metal loses an electron, energy is needed to remove that electron. The other part of this process involves the addition of the electron to another element. The electron adds to the outer shell of the new element. Just as the loss of the electron from the metal produces a full shell, when the electron or electrons are added to the new element, it also results in a full shell.\r\n\r\n<strong> Anions <\/strong> are negative ions that are formed when a <strong> nonmetal <\/strong> atom gains one or more electrons. Anions are so named because they are attracted to the <strong> anode <\/strong> (positive field) in an electric field. Atoms typically gain electrons so that they will have the electron configuration of a noble gas. All the elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons due to the outer <em> ns <\/em> <sup>2<\/sup><em> np <\/em> <sup> 5 <\/sup> configuration. Therefore, each of these elements would gain one electron and become an anion with a 1\u2212 charge. Likewise, Group 16 elements form ions with a 2\u2212 charge, and the Group 15 nonmetals form ions with a 3\u2212 charge.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Periodic Table\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211300\/20140811155214285615.png\" alt=\"Pauling electronegativity values of the periodic table\" width=\"560\" \/>\r\n\r\nNaming anions is slightly different than naming cations. The ending of the element\u2019s name is dropped and replaced with the \u2013 <em> ide <\/em> suffix. For example, F <sup> - <\/sup> is the fluoride ion, while O <sup> 2- <\/sup> is the oxide ion. As is the case with cations, the charge on the anion is indicated by a superscript following the symbol. Common anions are listed in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below <strong> : <\/strong>\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-ZGU3OWUwZmFlZjBmZDY4YWM3ZWUzYTM0YzEwZjVmMzk.-esh\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Anion Name <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Symbol and Charge <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>fluoride<\/td>\r\n<td>F <sup> - <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>chloride<\/td>\r\n<td>Cl <sup><sub> - <\/sub><\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>bromide<\/td>\r\n<td>Br <sup> - <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>iodide<\/td>\r\n<td>I <sup> - <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>oxide<\/td>\r\n<td>O <sup> 2- <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>sulfide<\/td>\r\n<td>S <sup> 2- <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>nitride<\/td>\r\n<td>N <sup> 3- <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Uses for Anions<\/h3>\r\nFluoride ion is widely used in water supplies to help prevent tooth decay. Chloride is an important component in ion balance in blood. Iodide ion is needed by the thyroid gland to make the hormone thyroxine.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Anions are formed by the addition of one or more electrons to the outer shell of an atom.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Group 17 elements add one electron to the outer shell, group 16 elements add two electrons, and group 15 elements add three electrons.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anions are named by dropping the ending of the element\u2019s name and adding - <em> ide.<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nRead this page about <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160306124012\/http:\/\/preparatorychemistry.com\/bishop_anion_names_formulas_help.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Anion Nomenclature<\/a> to answer the following questions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Why do elements form anions?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Why do group 17 elements form anions more readily than group 1 elements?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is an anion?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How are anions formed?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Why do anions form?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How are anions named?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List three examples of anions with names, charges, and chemical symbols.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List three ways anions are used.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> anion: <\/strong> Negative ions that are formed when a nonmetal atom gains one or more electrons.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> anode: <\/strong> Positively charged electrode, when electric current runs through a cathode ray tube.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> nonmetal: <\/strong> Lacking the chemical and physical properties of metals.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Transition Metal Ions<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the electron configuration of the transition metals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how transition metals form ions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List uses for transition metal ions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>What kind of coin is this?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"alignright\" title=\"Platinum Eagle\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211302\/20140811155214372966.jpeg\" alt=\"Platinum eagle coin\" width=\"200\" \/>Most of us are familiar with the common coins: penny, nickel, quarter. In some areas (such as Las Vegas), you might see large amounts of silver dollars (these get a little heavy in your pocket). But most of us have probably never seen a platinum eagle\u2014an eagle coin, but one that is held primarily by collectors.\r\n\r\nIf you were to take a one-ounce platinum eagle into a store and try to buy one hundred dollars worth of items, the store owner most likely would not believe you when you told them the coin was worth one hundred dollars. It would also be awkward and annoying if you lost one of these coins out of your pocket. Platinum is just one of several transition metals that is worth a lot of money (gold is another one).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe group 1 and 2 elements form cations through a simple process that involves the loss of one or more outer shell electrons. These electrons come from the <em> s <\/em> orbital and are removed very readily.\r\n\r\nMost <strong> transition <\/strong> <strong> metals <\/strong> differ from the metals of Groups 1, 2, and 13 in that they are capable of forming more than one cation with different ionic charges. As an example, iron commonly forms two different ions. It can sometimes lose two electrons to form the Fe<sup>2+ <\/sup> ion, while at other times it loses three electrons to form the Fe<sup>3+ <\/sup> ion. Tin and lead, though members of the <em> p <\/em> block rather than the <strong> <em> d <\/em> block<\/strong>, also are capable of forming multiple ions.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Periodic Table\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211304\/20140811155214528617.png\" alt=\"Transition elements on the periodic table\" width=\"560\" \/>\r\n\r\nIonic formation for transition metals is complicated by the fact that these elements have unfilled inner <em> d <\/em> shells. Although the next higher <em> s <\/em> orbitals are actually at a lower energy level than the <em> d <\/em> level, these <em> s <\/em> electrons are the ones that are removed during ionization.\r\n\r\nThe <strong> Table <\/strong> below lists the names and formulas of some of the common transition metal ions:\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-Yjk3Njc1NjE5NWY3ZjVhZTMxNGFiNzUxODA1MTYzMmU.-a4q\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"0\"><caption>Common Transition Metal Ions<\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> 1+ <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> 2+ <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> 3+ <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> 4+ <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>copper(I), Cu <sup> + <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>cadmium, Cd <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>chromium(III),\u00a0Cr <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>lead(IV), Pb <sup> 4+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>gold(I), Au <sup> + <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>chromium(II), Cr <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>cobalt(III), Co <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>tin(IV), Sn <sup> 4+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>mercury(I), Hg <sub>2<\/sub><sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>cobalt(II), Co <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>gold(III), Au <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>silver, Ag <sup> + <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>copper(II), Cu <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>iron(III), Fe <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>iron(II), Fe <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>lead(II), Pb <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>manganese(II), Mn <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>mercury(II), Hg <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>nickel(II), Ni <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>platinum(II), Pt <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>tin(II), Sn <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td>zinc, Zn <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Uses for Transition Metals<\/h3>\r\nBecause there are so many metals in this group, there are a wide variety of uses. Many of the metals are used in electronics, while others (such as gold and silver) are used in monetary systems. Iron is a versatile structural material. Cobalt, nickel, platinum, and other metals are employed as catalysts in a number of chemical reactions. Zinc is a significant component of batteries.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Transtion metals have unfilled inner <em> d <\/em> electron shells.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ions form primarily through loss of <em> s <\/em> electrons.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Many transition metals can form more than one ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Transition metals have a wide variety of applications.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the links below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/chemed.chem.purdue.edu\/genchem\/topicreview\/bp\/ch12\/trans.php\"> http:\/\/chemed.chem.purdue.edu\/genchem\/topicreview\/bp\/ch12\/trans.php <\/a>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>List some similarities between transition metals and main-group metals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List some differences between transition metals and main-group metals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the electron configurations of the cobalt ions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is unique about the electron configurations of transition metals?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which electrons of transition metal elements are most likely to be lost duing ion formation?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many ions can iron form?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which transition metal forms only one ion?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List several uses for transition metals.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> transition metal: <\/strong> Can come from more than on ion and have unfilled inner <em>d<\/em>\u00a0 electron shells.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong><em>d\u00a0<\/em>block: <\/strong> Capable of forming multiple ions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Naming Binary Ionic Compounds<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe rules for naming binary ionic compounds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe how to name compounds in which the metal can have more than one ionic form.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Do you know the proper name for this insect?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Insect\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211305\/20140811155214645869.png\" alt=\"Insect naming is like naming compounds\" width=\"200\" \/>\r\n\r\nProper naming is important for identification purposes. Medicine names must be precise so that the correct drug is given, one that will help the patient and not harm them. Biological classification of species requires accurate naming for proper categorization. The insect above has been properly categorized by genus and species, so it is uniquely identified. Names must be correct for the tracing family trees in genealogical studies. Compounds used in chemical reactions must be correctly specified in order for the reaction to occur.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nA <strong> binary <\/strong> ionic compound is a compound composed of a <strong> monatomic <\/strong> metal <strong> cation <\/strong> and a monatomic nonmetal <strong> anion <\/strong> .\r\n\r\nWhen examining the formula of a compound in order to name it, you must first decide what kind of compound it is. For a binary ionic compound, a metal will always be the first element in the formula, while a nonmetal will always be the second. The metal cation is named first, followed by the nonmetal anion. Subscripts in the formula do not affect the name. The <strong> Table <\/strong> below shows three examples:\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-OWUzOTZjN2ZhMWYxMmJiZmRjOTkxMDhiYjcwNzg2NjU.-5gx\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\"><caption><strong> Naming Binary Ionic Compounds <\/strong><\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>KF<\/td>\r\n<td>potassium fluoride<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Na <sub>3<\/sub> N<\/td>\r\n<td>sodium nitride<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ca <sub>3<\/sub> P <sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>calcium phosphide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNotice that in each of the formulas above, the overall charge of the compound is zero. Potassium ion is K<sup>+<\/sup>, while fluoride ion is F<sup>\u2212<\/sup>. Since the magnitude of the charges is equal, the formula contains one of each ion. This would also be the case for a compound such as MgS, in which the ions are Mg<sup>2+<\/sup> and S<sup>2\u2212<\/sup>. For sodium nitride, the sodium ion is Na<sup>+<\/sup>, while the nitride ion is N<sup>3\u2212<\/sup>. In order to make a neutral compound, three of the 1+ sodium ions are required in order to balance out the single 3\u2212 nitride ion. So the Na is given a subscript of 3. For calcium phosphide, the calcium ion is Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>, while the phosphide ion is P<sup>3\u2212<\/sup>. The least common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6. To make the compound neutral, three calcium ions have a total charge of 6+, while two phosphide ions have a total charge of 6\u2212. The Ca is given a subscript of 3, while the P is given a subscript of 2.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A binary ionic compound is a compound composed of a monatomic metal cation and a monatomic nonmetal anion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The metal part of the compound is named as the element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The non-metallic part of the compound is named by dropping the end of the element and adding -<em>ide. <\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>For binary compounds, it is not necessary to indicate the number of ions in the compound <em> .<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is the stem for compounds using the oxygen anion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How would you name AlN?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How would you name NaCl?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is a binary compound?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which of the following is not a binary compound?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>NaCl<\/li>\r\n \t<li>KH<sub>2<\/sub>PO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>KBr<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name the following compounds:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>NaBr<\/li>\r\n \t<li>MgCl<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>LiI<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CaO<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CuBr<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>FeO<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> binary: <\/strong> A compound composed of a monatomic metal cation and a monatomic nonmetal anion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> monatomic: <\/strong> Has one atom.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> cation: <\/strong> Ions known as cations are because they are positively charged and migrate toward the negative electrode (cathode) in an electrical field.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> anion: <\/strong> Negative ions that are formed when a nonmetal atom gains one or more electrons.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Stock System Naming<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define the Stock system for naming ionic compounds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name compounds using the Stock system.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write formulas of compounds when given the Stock name.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>How is an mp3 player designed?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"MP3 Player\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211307\/20140811155214781017.png\" alt=\"Models of an MP3 player are like ions of transition metals\" width=\"500\" \/>\r\n\r\nIn describing many technological items, it's not enough to simply say what brand or model we have. We talk about details such as how much horsepower is \u201cunder the hood\u201d for a car or how fast the chip is for our computer. Even a simple device like an mp3 player has more than one size. We can get an 8 MB player, or a 16 MB player. Designation of the item often is incomplete without other information as to its capabilities.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nTransition metals have more than one possibility for ion formation. In order to name these compounds correctly, we need to be able to indicate which ion is involved in any given compound.\r\n<h3>Naming Compounds Using the Stock System<\/h3>\r\nNaming compounds that involve transition metal cations necessitates the use of the <strong> Stock <\/strong> <strong> system<\/strong>. Consider the binary ionic compound FeCl<sub>3<\/sub>. To simply name this compound iron chloride would be incomplete because iron is capable of forming two ions with different charges. The name of any iron-containing compound must reflect which iron ion is in the compound. In this case, the subscript in the formula indicates that there are three chloride ions, each with a 1\u2212 charge. Therefore, the charge of the single iron ion must be 3+. The correct name of FeCl<sub>3<\/sub> is iron(III) chloride, with the cation charge written as the Roman numeral. Here are several other examples.\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-N2U1MTlhNzgzZjU4MTI2OTUyYjE4MjY2ZmQ1YWY2M2Q.-tuv\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Cu<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/td>\r\n<td>copper(I) oxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>CuO<\/td>\r\n<td>copper(II) oxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>SnO<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>tin(IV) oxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe first two examples are both oxides of copper (shown in\u00a0<strong>Figure <\/strong> 3). The ratio of copper ions to oxide ions determines the name. Since the oxide ion is O<sup><sub>2\u2212<\/sub><\/sup>, the charges of the copper ion must be 1+ in the first formula and 2+ in the second formula. In the third formula, there is one tin ion for every two oxide ions. This means that the tin must carry a 4+ charge, making the name tin(IV) oxide.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"160\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM2MDA4NzI5Ny0yMi0xMS1DLUludENoLTAyLTA0LTA3LUNvcHBlci1PeGlkZXM.\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211308\/20140811155214898665.png\" alt=\"Copper I and II oxides have different colors\" width=\"160\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Copper%28I%29%20oxide%2C%20a%20red%20solid%2C%20and%20copper%28II%29%20oxide%2C%20a%20black%20solid%2C%20are%20different%20compounds%20because%20of%20the%20charge%20of%20the%20copper%20ion.\" \/> Figure 3[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCopper(I) oxide, a red solid, and copper(II) oxide, a black solid, are different compounds because of the charge of the copper ion.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The Stock system allows the specification of transition metal ionic charge when naming ionic compounds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Roman numerals are used to indicate the amount of positive charge on the cation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nPractice naming compounds at the following web site:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Stock-FormulatoName.html\"> http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Stock-FormulatoName.html<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is the Stock system?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>For which group of metal ions would we use the Stock system?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What does the Roman numeral stand for?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Assign a Roman numeral to each of the following cations:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Sn<sup>4+ <\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fe<sup>3+ <\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Co<sup>2+ <\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pb<sup>4+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> Stock system: <\/strong> Allows the specification of transition metal ionic charge when naming ionic compounds.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Be able to write formulas for binary ionic compounds when given the name.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Be able to name the binary ionic compound when given the formula.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>How does shorthand work?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Shorthand\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211309\/20140811155214997246.jpeg\" alt=\"Chemical symbols are like shorthand\" width=\"400\" \/>\r\n\r\nShorthand was a very popular way of recording speech, especially in dictating letters and in court testimony. Instead of trying to write out all the words, the person taking the dictation would use a set of symbols that represented syllables or words. The pages above show a shorthand version of \u201cA Christmas Carol\u201d written by Charles Dickens. Unless you know shorthand, the passage is meaningless. But knowing shorthand allows you to read this classic story.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nDifferent professions also use a type of shorthand in communication to save time. Chemists use chemical symbols in combination to indicate specific compounds. There are two advantages to this approach:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>The compound under discussion is clearly described so there can be no confusion about its identity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Chemical symbols represent a universal language that all chemists can understand, no matter what their native language is.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<h3>Writing Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds<\/h3>\r\nIf you know the name of a binary ionic compound, you can write its <strong> chemical <\/strong> <strong> formula <\/strong> . Start by writing the metal ion with its charge, followed by the nonmetal ion with its charge. Because the overall compound must be electrically neutral, decide how many of each ion is needed in order for the positive and negative charge to cancel each other out. Consider the compound aluminum nitride. The ions are:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"x-ck12-math aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211310\/2685f1a713e2ccaa75490f015f57ad54.png\" alt=\"text{Al}^{3+} quad text{N}^{3-}\" width=\"82\" height=\"17\" \/>\r\n\r\nSince the ions have charges that are equal in magnitude, one of each will be the lowest ratio of ions in the formula. The formula of aluminum nitride is AlN.\r\n\r\nThe ions for the compound lithium oxide are:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"x-ck12-math aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211311\/abbd0d61c5d7cf84ec4d1b4c7155e877.png\" alt=\"text{Li}^+ quad text{O}^{2-}\" width=\"74\" height=\"17\" \/>\r\n\r\nIn this case, two lithium ions are required to balance out the charge of one oxide ion. The formula of lithium oxide is Li <sub>2<\/sub> O.\r\n\r\nAn alternative way to writing a correct formula for an ionic compound is to use the crisscross method. In this method, the numerical value of each of the ion charges is crossed over to become the subscript of the other ion. Signs of the charges are dropped. Shown below is the crisscross method for aluminum oxide.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Al2O3 Cross\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211312\/20140811155215197623.jpg\" alt=\"Crisscross method for aluminum oxide\" width=\"100\" \/>\r\n\r\nThe red arrows indicate that the 3 from the 3+ charge will cross over to become the subscript of the O. The 2 from the 2\u2212 charge will cross over to become the subscript of the Al. The formula for aluminum oxide is Al <sub>2<\/sub> O <sub>3<\/sub> .\r\n\r\nBe aware that ionic compounds are empirical formulas and so must be written as the lowest ratio of the ions. In the case of aluminum nitride, the crisscross method would yield a formula of Al <sub>3<\/sub> N <sub>3<\/sub> , which is not correct. It must be reduced to AlN. Following the crisscross method to write the formula for lead(IV) oxide would involve the following steps:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"PbO2 Cross\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211313\/20140811155215325137.jpg\" alt=\"Crisscross method for lead (IV) oxide\" width=\"100\" \/>\r\n\r\nThe crisscross first yields Pb <sub>2<\/sub> O <sub>4<\/sub> for the formula, but that must be reduced to the lower ratio and PbO <sub>2<\/sub> is the correct formula.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Formulas for binary compounds begin with the metal followed by the non-metal.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Positive and negative charges must cancel each other out.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ionic compound formulas are written using the lowest ratio of ions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Comm-NametoFormula.html\"> http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Comm-NametoFormula.html <\/a>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>How did Lavoisier improve chemical nomenclature?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practice writing formulas using some of the examples given here.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Write formulas for the binary ionic compounds formed between the following pairs of elements:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>cesium and fluorine<\/li>\r\n \t<li>calcium and sulfur<\/li>\r\n \t<li>aluminum and chlorine<\/li>\r\n \t<li>zinc and nitrogen<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the formula and give the name for the compound formed by the following ions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Fe<sup>3+<\/sup> and O<sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ni<sup>2+<\/sup> and S<sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Au<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sn<sup>4+<\/sup> and I<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Give names for the following compounds:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Ag<sub>2<\/sub>S<\/li>\r\n \t<li>PdO<\/li>\r\n \t<li>PtCl<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>V<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> chemical formula: <\/strong> Use of chemical symbols in combination to indicate specific compounds.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Polyatomic Ions<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Be able to write structures for polyatomic ions when given the name.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Be able to name polyatomic ions when given the structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Have you ever read the story of Romeo and Juliet?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"alignright\" title=\"Bella Rosa\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211314\/20140811155215419716.jpeg\" alt=\"The names of polyatomic ions often contain both a prefix and a suffix\" width=\"350\" height=\"233\" \/>\r\n\r\nShakespeare once wrote, \u201cA rose by any other name would smell as sweet,\u201d part of the romantic balcony scene between Romeo and Juliet in the play of that name. The two families were bitter rivals, but Juliet was saying she loved Romeo no matter what his name was.\r\n\r\nSome names are simple\u2014we know Romeo mainly as Romeo. Most have us have a first name, middle name (often not used), and last name. In some cultures, names will be much more complex. The full name of the famous 20<sup>th <\/sup> century artist Pablo Picasso is Pablo Diego Jos\u00e9 Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Mar\u00eda de los Remedios Cipriano de la Sant\u00edsima Trinidad Martyr Patricio Clito Ru\u00edz y Picass.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nMany materials exist as simple binary compounds composed of a metal cation and a non-metal anion, with each ion consisting of only one type of atom. Other combinations of atoms also exist, either larger ionic complexes or complete molecules. Some of the most useful materials we work with contain polyatomic ions.\r\n\r\nA <strong> polyatomic <\/strong> ion is an ion composed of more than one atom. The ammonium ion consists of one nitrogen atom and four oxygen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>. The carbonate ion consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2\u2212. The formula of the carbonate ion is CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>. The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several models.\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td width=\"33%\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Ammonium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211316\/20140811155215506977.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of an ammonium ion\" width=\"150\" \/><\/td>\r\n<td width=\"33%\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Hydroxide\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211317\/20140811155215612653.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of a hydroxide\u00a0ion\" width=\"150\" \/><\/td>\r\n<td width=\"33%\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Carbonate\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211319\/20140811155215768718.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of a\u00a0carbonate ion\" width=\"150\" \/><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>A. The ammonium ion (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white).<\/td>\r\n<td>B. The hydroxide ion (OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup>) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom.<\/td>\r\n<td>\u00a0C. The carbonate ion (CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe <strong> Table <\/strong> below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions \u2013 there are very few polyatomic cations.\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th colspan=\"5\">Common Polyatomic Ions<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>1\u2212<\/th>\r\n<th>2\u2212<\/th>\r\n<th>3\u2212<\/th>\r\n<th>1+<\/th>\r\n<th>2+<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>acetate, CH<sub>3<\/sub>COO<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>carbonate, CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>arsenate, AsO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>ammonium, NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>dimercury, Hg<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2+<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>bromate, BrO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>chromate, CrO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>phosphite, PO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>chlorate, ClO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>dichromate, Cr<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>7<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>phosphate, PO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>chlorite, ClO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>hydrogen phosphate, HPO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>cyanide, CN<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>oxalate, C<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>dihydrogen phosphate, H<sub>2<\/sub>PO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>peroxide, O<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>hydrogen carbonate, HCO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>silicate, SiO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>hydrogen sulfate, HSO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>sulfate, SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>hydrogen sulfide, HS<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td>sulfite, SO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>hydroxide, OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>hypochlorite, ClO<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>nitrate, NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>nitrite, NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>perchlorate, ClO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>permanganate, MnO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in <em> \u2013ate <\/em> or <em> \u2013ite<\/em>. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>) and nitrite (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>), there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is in the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxoanions. When there are two oxoanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the <em> \u2013ate <\/em> suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the <em> \u2013ite <\/em> suffix. The four oxoanions of chlorine are shown below.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>ClO<sup>\u2212<\/sup>, hypochlorite<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ClO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>, chlorite<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ClO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>, chlorate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ClO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>, perchlorate<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn cases such as this, the ion with one more oxygen atom than the <em> \u2013ate <\/em> anion is given a <em> per- <\/em> prefix. The ion with one fewer oxygen atom than the <em> \u2013ite <\/em> anion is given a <em> hypo- <\/em> prefix.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Polyatomic ions contain more than one type of atom in the ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The majority of polyatomic ions are anions that are named ending in \u201cate\u201d or \u201cite.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Some anions have multiple forms and are named accordingly.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nLook at <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160308071757\/http:\/\/www2.pvc.maricopa.edu\/tutor\/chem\/chem130\/nomenclature\/polyatomicion.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this page on polyatomic ions<\/a> to answer the following questions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>List the polyatomic cations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many polyatomic ions of chromium are there? Write out the formulas and names each ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many polyatomic ions of chlorine are there? Write out the formulas and name each ion.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Write the formulas for the following ions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>ammonium<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbonate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>sulfate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>phosphate?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name the following ions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>PO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>SiO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>MnO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> polyatomic: <\/strong> An ion composed of more than one atom.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Names and Formulas of Ternary Ionic Compounds<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Be able to write structures for ternary ionic compounds when given the name.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Be able to name ternary ionic compounds when given the structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>How many varieties of pizza can you think of?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"alignright\" title=\"Pizza\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211320\/20140811155215892501.jpeg\" alt=\"Combinations of pizza toppings are like combinations of ions\" width=\"349\" height=\"221\" \/>\r\n\r\nMost people enjoy eating pizza. When they order a pizza (either by phone, on-line, or in a restaurant), they don\u2019t just order \u201cpizza.\u201d Even the simplest \u201cbinary\u201d pizza will have a topping and cheese \u2013 maybe pepperoni, maybe something else.\r\n\r\nHowever, many pizzas quickly become more complex. One person may want pepperoni and sausage, another may wish to order Canadian bacon and pineapple, and then you have the folks that can\u2019t decide, so they order half-this and half-that. The combinations may be more complex, but the same basic ideas about pizza are valid.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nNot all ionic compounds are composed of only monatomic ions. A <strong> ternary <\/strong> <strong> ionic <\/strong> <strong> compound <\/strong> is an ionic compound composed of three or more elements. In a typical ternary ionic compound, there is still one type of cation and one type of anion involved. The cation, the anion, or both, is a polyatomic ion.\r\n<h3>Naming Ternary Ionic Compounds<\/h3>\r\nThe process of naming ternary ionic compounds is the same as naming binary ionic compounds. The cation is named first, followed by the anion. Some examples are shown in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below:\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-ODQ5NjJlMGM1MzllZWQwZjYyNzcxZTgzNzRkYjA5MTU.-sxr\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\"><caption><strong> Examples of Ternary Ionic Compounds <\/strong><\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>NaNO<sub>3<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>sodium nitrate<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>NH<sub>4<\/sub>Cl<\/td>\r\n<td>ammonium chloride<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Fe(OH)<sub>3<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>iron(III) hydroxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nWhen more than one polyatomic ion is present in a compound, the formula of the ion is placed in parentheses with a subscript outside of the parentheses that indicates how many of those ions are in the compound. In the last example above, there is one Fe<sup>3+ <\/sup> cation and three OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> anions.\r\n<h3>Writing Formulas for Ternary Ionic Compounds<\/h3>\r\nWriting a formula for a ternary ionic compound also involves the same steps as for a binary ionic compound. Write the symbol and charge of the cation followed by the symbol and charge of the anion. Use the crisscross method to ensure that the final formula is neutral. Calcium nitrate is composed of a calcium cation and a nitrate anion.\r\n\r\n<img title=\"Ca(NO3)2 Cross\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211322\/20140811155216070303.jpg\" alt=\"How to write the formula for calcium nitrate\" width=\"100\" \/>\r\n\r\nThe charge is balanced by the presence of two nitrate ions and one calcium ion. Parentheses are used around the nitrate ion because more than one of the polyatomic ion is needed. If only one polyatomic ion is in a formula, parentheses are not used. As an example, the formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO<sub>3<\/sub>. The carbonate ion carries a 2\u2212 charge and so exactly balances the 2+ charge of the calcium ion.\r\n\r\nThere are two polyatomic ions that produce unusual formulas. The Hg<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2+ <\/sup> ion is called either the dimercury ion or, preferably, the mercury(I) ion. When bonded with an anion with a 1\u2212 charge, such as chloride, the formula is Hg<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>. Because the cation consists of two Hg atoms bonded together, this formula is not reduced to HgCl. Likewise, the peroxide ion, O<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>, is also a unit that must stay together in its formulas. For example, the formula for potassium peroxide is K<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Ternary compounds are composed of three or more elements.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ternary compounds are named by stating the cation first, followed by the anion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Positive and negative charges must balance.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/QNijl4ZBJCw\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What are ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions called?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does the \u201ccriss-cross\u201d method work for naming ternary compounds?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is a ternary compound?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the basic rule for naming ternary compounds?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the formulas for the following compounds:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>mercury(II) nitrate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ammonium phosphate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>calcium silicate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>lead(II) chromate<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name the following compounds:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>KClO<sub>3<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Rb<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cd(NO<sub>3<\/sub>)<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>NaCN<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> ternary: <\/strong> A compound made up of three parts.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> ternary ionic compound: <\/strong> An ionic compound composed of three or more elements.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Naming Binary Molecular Compounds<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define molecular compound.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how molecular compounds are different from ionic compounds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Be able to name the compound when given the formula.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Why do so many relatives in royalty share the same name?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Edward I\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211325\/20140811155216182317.jpeg\" alt=\"Naming molecular compounds is like naming royalty\" width=\"200\" \/>\r\n\r\nSome families name a son (usually the firstborn) after his father. So it is somewhat common to find John Smith, Jr. named after John Smith the father. A few families may take it further and name the grandson John Smith III. Countries with long histories of royalty take the naming even further. One line of kings named Henry goes up to Henry the Eighth (not the nicest guy in the world \u2013 he had six wives and two of them came to untimely ends). The use of numbering for names adds clarity to a system \u2013we always know which Henry we are talking about.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nInorganic chemical compounds can be broadly classified into two groups: ionic compounds and molecular compounds. The structure of all ionic compounds is an extended three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. Since ionic compounds do not take the form of individual molecules, they are represented by empirical formulas. Now we will begin to examine the formulas and nomenclature of molecular compounds.\r\n<h3>Molecular Compounds<\/h3>\r\nMolecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete <strong> molecules<\/strong>. Examples include such familiar substance as water (H<sub>2<\/sub>O) and carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>). These compounds are very different from ionic compounds like sodium chloride (NaCl). Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms lose one or more of their electrons to nonmetal atoms. The resulting cations and anions are electrostatically attracted to each other.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"192\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1OTM3NDE4NC02OC01OC1JbWFnZS0tLTI0\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211326\/20140811155216328995.png\" alt=\"Structure of a carbon dioxide molecule\" width=\"192\" height=\"118\" longdesc=\"Carbon%20dioxide%20molecules%20consist%20of%20a%20central%20carbon%20atom%20bonded%20to%202%20oxygen%20atoms.\" \/> Figure 4.\u00a0Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a central carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSo what holds the atoms of a molecule together? Rather than forming ions, the atoms of a molecule share their <strong> valence <\/strong> <strong> electrons <\/strong> in such a way that a <strong> bond <\/strong> forms between pairs of atoms. In a carbon dioxide molecule, there are two of these bonds, each occurring between the carbon atom and one of the two oxygen atoms.\r\n\r\nLarger molecules can have many, many bonds that serve to keep the molecule together. In a large sample of a given molecular compound, all of the individual molecules are identical.\r\n<h3>Naming Binary Molecular Compounds<\/h3>\r\nRecall that a molecular formula shows the number of atoms of each element that a molecule contains. A molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, so its formula is H<sub>2<\/sub>O. A molecule of octane, which is a component of gasoline, contains 8 atoms of carbon and 18 atoms of hydrogen. The molecular formula of octane is C<sub>8<\/sub>H<sub>18<\/sub>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"105\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTQwMDI2NDAyMy00OC0xOS0xMzFweC1OaXRyb2dlbmRpb3hpZGU.\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211327\/20140811155216450381.jpeg\" alt=\"Bottle of nitrogen dioxide\" width=\"105\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Nitrogen%20dioxide%20%28NO%3Csub%3E2%3C\/sub%3E%29%20is%20a%20reddish-brown%20toxic%20gas%20that%20is%20a%20prominent%20air%20pollutant%20produced%20by%20internal%20combustion%20engines.\" \/> Figure 5.\u00a0[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFigure 5 shows nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2<\/sub>), which is a reddish-brown toxic gas that is a prominent air pollutant produced by internal combustion engines.\r\n\r\nA binary molecular compound is a molecular compound that is composed of two elements. The elements that combine to form binary molecular compounds are both nonmetal atoms. This contrasts with ionic compounds, which were formed from a metal ion and a nonmetal ion. Therefore, binary molecular compounds are different because ionic charges cannot be used to name them or to write their formulas. Another difference is that two nonmetal atoms will frequently combine with one another in a variety of ratios. Consider the elements nitrogen and oxygen. They combine to make several compounds including NO, NO<sub>2<\/sub>, and N<sub>2<\/sub>O. They all can\u2019t be called nitrogen oxide. How would someone know which one you were talking about? Each of the three compounds has very different properties and reactivity. A system to distinguish between compounds such as these is necessary.\r\n\r\nPrefixes are used in the names of binary molecular compounds to identify the number of atoms of each element. The <strong> Table <\/strong> below shows the prefixes up to ten.\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-OWEyZDI1MDk5ZjBhMmFkNDQ5ZmE3MTkzOTJjZDM2MWQ.-1ny\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\"><caption><strong> Numerical Prefixes <\/strong><\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Number of Atoms <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Prefix <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>mono-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>di-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>tri-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>tetra-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>penta-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>hexa-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7<\/td>\r\n<td>hepta-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>8<\/td>\r\n<td>octa-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>9<\/td>\r\n<td>nona-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>10<\/td>\r\n<td>deca-<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe rules for using the prefix system of nomenclature of binary molecular compounds can be summarized as follows.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Generally, the less-electronegative element is written first in the formula, though there are a few exceptions. Carbon is always first in a formula and hydrogen is after nitrogen in a formula such as NH<sub>3<\/sub>. The order of common nonmetals in binary compound formulas is C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When naming, the appropriate prefix is used only if there are more than one atom of that element in the formula.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The second element is named after the first, but with the ending of the element\u2019s name changed to \u2013 <em> ide. <\/em> The appropriate prefix is always used for the second element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The <em> a <\/em> or <em> o <\/em> at the end of a prefix is usually dropped from the name when the name of the element begins with a vowel. As an example, four oxygen atoms is tetroxide instead of tetraoxide.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nSome examples of molecular compounds are listed in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below .\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-NGYwYWRjNzFmZTE4NzE2ZjhmMmU2ZGFlODk4NWZlODE.-nxf\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>NO<\/td>\r\n<td>nitrogen monoxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>N<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/td>\r\n<td>dinitrogen monoxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>S<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>disulfur dichloride<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>7 <\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>dichlorine heptoxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNotice that the mono- prefix is not used with the nitrogen in the first compound, but is used with the oxygen in both of the first two examples. The S<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>2<\/sub> emphasizes that the formulas for molecular compounds are not reduced to their lowest ratios. The <em> o <\/em> of mono- and the <em> a <\/em> of hepta- are dropped from the name when paired with oxide.\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The atoms of these compounds are held together by covalent bonds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of an element that are in the compound.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/chemical-nomenclature\/bimolcmpds.html\"> http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/chemical-nomenclature\/bimolcmpds.html <\/a>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What order is used to write the elements of a molecular compound?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How many elements are in a binary molecular compound?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the advantage of using a systematic name over a generic name?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What are molecular compounds?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How do they differ from ionic compounds?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What holds the atoms of a molecule together?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Are the elements of molecular compounds metals or non-metals?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List the prefixes for the number of atoms of an element when there are four atoms of that element in the compound.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List the prefixes for the number of atoms of an element when there are seven atoms of that element in the compound.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name the following compounds:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>ClF<sub>3<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>As<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5 <\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>B<sub>4<\/sub>H<sub>10<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong> molecule: <\/strong> Two or more atoms that have been chemically combined.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> bond: <\/strong> By sharing valence electrons, bonds hold the atoms of a molecule together.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong> valence electron: <\/strong> Can form molecules by bonding with atoms.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Naming Acids<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define acid.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>State rules for naming acids.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write name of acid when given formula.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>How is gold tested?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"alignright\" title=\"Gold\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211327\/20140811155216581876.jpeg\" alt=\"Acid is used to test the identity of gold\" width=\"250\" \/>\r\n\r\nA spot test for gold has been in use for decades. The sample is first treated with nitric acid. Other metals may react or dissolve in this acid, but gold will not. Then the sample is added to a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid.\r\n\r\n<em>Gold will only dissolve in this mixture. <\/em>\r\n\r\nThe term \u201cacid test\u201d arose from the California gold rush in the late 1840s when this combination was used to test for the presence of real gold. It has since come to mean, \u201ctested and approved\u201d in a number of fields.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Acids<\/h3>\r\nAn <strong> acid <\/strong> can be defined in several ways. The most straightforward definition is that an acid is a molecular compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions (H<sup>+<\/sup>) when dissolved in water.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1OTM3NTM2OC00My0zMy1JbWFnZS0tLTI3\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211330\/20140811155216687705.png\" alt=\"Vinegar contains acetic acid, grapefruit contains ascorbic and citric acid\" width=\"500\" height=\"231\" longdesc=\"%28A%29%20Vinegar%20comes%20in%20a%20variety%20of%20types%2C%20but%20all%20contain%20acetic%20acid.%20%28B%29%20Citrus%20fruits%20like%20grapefruit%20contain%20citric%20and%20ascorbic%20acids.\" \/> Figure 6.\u00a0(A) Vinegar comes in a variety of types, but all contain acetic acid. (B) Citrus fruits like grapefruit contain citric and ascorbic acids.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis is a different type of compound than the others we have seen so far. Acids are molecular, which means that in their pure state they are individual molecules and do not adopt the extended three-dimensional structures of ionic compounds like NaCl. However, when these molecules are dissolved in water, the chemical bond between the hydrogen atom and the rest of the molecule breaks, leaving a positively-charged hydrogen ion and an anion. This can be symbolized in a chemical equation:\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">HCl \u2192 H<sup>+ <\/sup> + Cl<sup>\u2212 <\/sup><\/p>\r\nSince acids produce\u00a0H<sup>+ <\/sup> cations upon dissolving in water, the H of an acid is written first in the formula of an inorganic acid. The remainder of the acid (other than the H) is the anion after the acid dissolves. Organic acids are also an important class of compounds, but will not be discussed here. A <strong> binary <\/strong> <strong> acid <\/strong> is an acid that consists of hydrogen and one other element. The most common binary acids contain a halogen. An <strong> oxoacid <\/strong> is an acid that consists of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element. The third element is usually a nonmetal.\r\n<h3>Naming Acids<\/h3>\r\nSince all acids contain hydrogen, the name of an acid is based on the anion that goes with it. These anions can either be monatomic or polyatomic. The name of all monatomic ions ends in \u2013 <em> ide. <\/em> The majority of polyatomic ions end in either \u2013 <em> ate <\/em> or \u2013 <em> ite <\/em> , though there are a few exceptions such as the cyanide ion (CN<sup>\u2212<\/sup>). It is this suffix of the anion that determines how the acid is named as displayed in the rules and <strong> Table <\/strong> below.\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-Mjc3YTNiYmJiOGNiNzQ3ZWYyZTkwMjVmMjQ1NzgyY2Q.-4sr\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\"><caption><strong> Naming System for Acids <\/strong><\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong> Anion Suffix <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Example <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Name of Acid <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong> Example <\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>- <em> ide <\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>chloride (Cl<sup>\u2212<\/sup>)<\/td>\r\n<td>hydro_____ic acid<\/td>\r\n<td>hydrochloric acid (HCl)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>- <em> ate <\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>sulfate (SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>)<\/td>\r\n<td>_____ic acid<\/td>\r\n<td>sulfuric acid (H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub>)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>- <em> ite <\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>nitrite (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>)<\/td>\r\n<td>_____ous acid<\/td>\r\n<td>nitrous acid (HNO<sub>2<\/sub>)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe three different suffixes that are possible for the anions lead to the three rules below.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>When the anion ends in \u2013 <em> ide, <\/em> the acid name begins with the prefix <em> hydro<\/em>-. The root of the anion name goes in the blank ( <em> chlor <\/em> for chloride), followed by the suffix <em> \u2013ic <\/em> . HCl is hydrochloric acid because Cl<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> is the chloride ion. HCN is hydrocyanic acid because CN<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> is the cyanide ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When the anion ends in \u2013 <em> ate, <\/em> the name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix <em> \u2013ic <\/em> . There is no prefix. H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub> is sulfuric acid (not sulfic) because\u00a0SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212 <\/sup> is the sulfate ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When the anion ends in \u2013 <em> ite, <\/em> the name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix <em> \u2013ous <\/em> . Again, there is no prefix. HNO<sub>2<\/sub> is nitrous acid because NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212 <\/sup> is the nitrite ion.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nNote how the root for a sulfur-containing oxoacid is <em> sulfur- <\/em> instead of just <em> sulf-. <\/em> The same is true for a phosphorus-containing oxoacid. The root is <em> phosphor- <\/em> instead of simply <em> phosph-. <\/em>\r\n\r\nMany foods and beverages contain citric acid. Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid. Car batteries contain sulfuric acid that helps in the release of electrons to create electricity.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\nWatch a video on naming acids:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm\"> http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Writing Formulas for Acids<\/h3>\r\nLike other compounds that we have studied, acids are electrically neutral. Therefore, the charge of the anion part of the formula must be exactly balanced out by the H<sup>+ <\/sup> ions. Since\u00a0H<sup>+ <\/sup> ions carry a single negative charge, the number of\u00a0H<sup>+ <\/sup> ions in the formula is equal to the quantity of the negative charge on the anion. Two examples from the table above illustrate this point. The chloride ion carries a 1\u2212 charge, so only one H is needed in the formula of the acid (HCl). The sulfate ion carries a 2\u2212 charge, so two H\u2019s are needed in the formula of the acid (H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub>). Another way to think about writing the correct formula is to utilize the crisscross method, shown below for sulfuric acid.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"185\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM2MDA5NDg4OC03LTM0LUMtSW50Q2gtMDItMDQtMTItU3VsZnVyaWMtQWNpZA..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211333\/20140811155216850697.png\" alt=\"How to write the formula for sulfuric acid\" width=\"185\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Criss-cross%20approach%20to%20writing%20formula%20for%20sulfuric%20acid.\" \/> Figure 7.\u00a0Criss-cross approach to writing formula for sulfuric acid.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Acids are molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A binary acid consists of hydrogen and one other element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Oxoacids contain hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The name of the acid is based on the anion attached to the hydrogen.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Writing formulas for acids follows the same rules as for binary ionic compounds.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to answer the following questions:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm\"> http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm <\/a>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>When naming acids, is the hydrogen named?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What prefix is added to the anion root?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What suffix is added to the anion root?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How are oxo acids named?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Define \u201cacid.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is a binary acid?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is an oxoacid?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name the following acids:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>HCN<\/li>\r\n \t<li>HCl<\/li>\r\n \t<li>H<sub>3<\/sub>PO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write formulas for the following acids:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>hydrobromic acid<\/li>\r\n \t<li>perchloric acid<\/li>\r\n \t<li>nitrous acid<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>acid:<\/strong> An acid is a molecular compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>binary acid:<\/strong> An acid that consists of hydrogen and one other element.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>oxoacid:<\/strong> \u00a0An acid that consists of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element. \u00a0The third element is usually a nonmetal.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Names and Formulas of Bases<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define base.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>State rules for naming bases.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the name of a base when given the chemical formula.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the chemical formula for a base when given the name.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>What different things are these workers doing to make soap?<\/h3>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Soap Making\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211333\/20140811155216983934.jpeg\" alt=\"Making soap requires a base, lye\" width=\"400\" \/>\r\n\r\nSoap making has a long history. Until recently, soap was made using animal fats and lye from wood ashes. The lye served as a base to break down the fats and help form the soap. Needless to say, unless the soap was washed to remove the lye, it was very harsh on the skin. Many families would make their own soap by boiling the lye and fat in a large kettle over an open fire, a long and hot task.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Bases<\/h3>\r\nThe simplest way to define a <strong> base <\/strong> is an ionic compound that produces <strong> hydroxide <\/strong> <strong> ions <\/strong> when dissolved in water. One of the most commonly used bases is sodium hydroxide, illustrated below.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\"]<img id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM2MDA5NTEyNC00Mi04LUMtSW50Q2gtMDItMDQtMTQtU29kaXVtLUh5ZHJveGlkZQ..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211335\/20140811155217134503.png\" alt=\"Picture and structure of sodium hydroxide\" width=\"500\" height=\"193\" longdesc=\"(A)%20Sodium%20hydroxide%2C%20a%20base%2C%20is%20a%20solid%20that%20is%20typically%20produced%20as%20small%20white%20pellets.%20(B)%20The%20structure%20of%20sodium%20hydroxide%20is%20an%20extended%20three-dimensional%20network.%20The%20purple%20spheres%20are%20the%20sodium%20ions%20(Na%3Csup%3E%2B%3C%2Fsup%3E).%20The%20red%20and%20white%20spheres%20are%20oxygen%20and%20hydrogen%20atoms%20respectively%2C%20which%20are%20bonded%20together%20to%20form%20hydroxide%20ions%20(OH%3Csup%3E%E2%88%92%3C%2Fsup%3E).\" \/> Figure 8.\u00a0(A) Sodium hydroxide, a base, is a solid that is typically produced as small white pellets. (B) The structure of sodium hydroxide is an extended three-dimensional network. The purple spheres are the sodium ions (Na<sup>+<\/sup>). The red and white spheres are oxygen and hydrogen atoms respectively, which are bonded together to form hydroxide ions (OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup>).[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Names and Formulas of Bases<\/h3>\r\nThere is no special system for naming bases. Since they all contain the OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> anion, names of bases end in <em> hydroxide<\/em>. The cation is simply named first. Some examples of names and formulas for bases are shown in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below.\r\n<table id=\"x-ck12-ZWFiZDMzNmUyY2FiNGI4NjlmZDRmODFlNDUzNGMyZWM.-49w\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Formula<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Name<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>NaOH<\/td>\r\n<td>sodium hydroxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ca(OH)<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>calcium hydroxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>NH<sub>4<\/sub>OH<\/td>\r\n<td>ammonium hydroxide<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNotice that because bases are ionic compounds, the number of hydroxides in the formula does not affect the name. The compound must be neutral, so the charges of the ions are balanced just as for other ionic compounds. Sodium ion (Na<sup>+<\/sup>) requires one OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> ion to balance the charge, so the formula is NaOH. Calcium ion (Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>) requires two OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> ions to balance the charge, so the formula is Ca(OH)<sub>2<\/sub>. Hydroxide ion is a polyatomic ion and must be put in parentheses when there are more than on in a formula.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Bases are ionic compounds that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The cation is named first followed by \u201chydroxide.\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\r\nUse the link below to practice naming bases and writing formulas for bases:\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/www.chem.uiuc.edu\/webfunchem\/bases\/nombaseIndex.htm\"> http:\/\/www.chem.uiuc.edu\/webfunchem\/bases\/nombaseIndex.htm<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is a base?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the charge on the hydroxide anion?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Name the following bases:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>LiOH<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mg(OH)<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fe(OH)<sub>3<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the formulas for the following bases:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>nickel (II) hydroxide<\/li>\r\n \t<li>aluminum hydroxide<\/li>\r\n \t<li>silver hydroxide<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>base:<\/strong> An ionic compound that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>hydroxide ion:<\/strong> Has \u00a0one hydrogen atom and one\u00a0oxygen atom.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"836080\"]Show References[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"836080\"]\r\n<h2>References<\/h2>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>J. S. Bach. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bach_cello_harmony.JPG\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bach_cello_harmony.JPG <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CK-12 Foundation - Joy Sheng. .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>User:Calvero\/Wikimedia Commons. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sucrose.svg\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sucrose.svg <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Madame Lavoisier. Lavoisier Sketch .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Original uploader was Gold Guru at en.wikipedia. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nugsrandt.jpg\"> Gold Nuggets <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Erik Dunmire. marin.edu .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Christopher Auyeung. CK-12 .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Courtesy of Shane Anderson\/NOAA. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kelp_300.jpg\"> Seaweed <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CK-12 Foundation - Christopher Auyeung. Periodic Table.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Courtesy of the US Mint. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Platinum_eagle101.jpg\"> Platinum Eagle <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cepheus, modified by CK-12 Foundation. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Periodic_table.svg\"> Periodic Table <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Carl Gustav Calwer, Gustav J\u00e4ger, Emil Hochdanz. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anoplodera.scutellata.-.calwer.41.16.jpg\"> Insect <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>XAVeRY. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:S1_mp3_player_example-edit.png\"> MP3 Player <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ond\u0159ej Mangl . Copper(I) oxide: http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cu2O.png; Copper(II) oxide: http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Oxid_m%C4%9B%C4%8Fnat%C3%BD.PNG .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Winifred Kenna. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gregg_shorthand_A_Christmas_Carol.jpg\"> Shorthand <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CK-12 Foundation - Joy Sheng. Al2O3 Cross.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CK-12 Foundation - Joy Sheng. PbO2 Cross.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Huhu. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bella_Rosa_%28Kordes_1981%29.JPG\"> Bella Rosa <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ammonium-3D-balls.png\"> Ammonium <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hydroxide-3D-vdW.png\"> Hydroxide <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carbonate-3D-balls.png\"> Carbonate <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Jon Sullivan. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pepperoni_pizza.jpg\"> Pizza <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CK-12 Foundation - Joy Sheng. Ca(NO3)2 Cross .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anonymous. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Eduard1_biskupove.jpg\"> Edward I <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.png\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.png <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>User:Greenhorn1\/Wikimedia Commons. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nitrogendioxide.jpg\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nitrogendioxide.jpg <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Image copyright Zenphotography, 2014. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.shutterstock.com\"> Gold <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>(A) Becky Cortino; (B) Flickr: isox4. (A) http:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/mediasavvy\/8239231530\/; (B) http:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/isox4\/5167980026\/ .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CK-12 Foundation - Joy Sheng. .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Unknown. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Zeepzieden.jpg\"> Soap Making <\/a> .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>(A) Martin Walker (Wikimedia: Walkerma); (B) Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27) . (A) http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:SodiumHydroxide.jpg; (B) http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sodium-hydroxide-crystal-3D-vdW.png .<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[\/hidden-answer]","rendered":"<h2>Molecular Formula<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define molecule.<\/li>\n<li>Define molecular formula.<\/li>\n<li>Describe how to write molecular formulas.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Why are music notes a unique &#8220;language&#8221;?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211250\/20140811155212607182.jpeg\" alt=\"Music is a unique language like chemical formulas\" width=\"560\" \/><\/p>\n<p>There are many \u201cuniversal languages\u201d in the world. Musicians of every culture recognize the music embodied in a series of notes on a staff.<\/p>\n<p>This passage from a Bach cello suite could be played by any trained musician from any country, because there is agreement as to what the symbols on the page mean. In the same way, molecules are represented using symbols that all chemists agree upon.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>A <strong> molecule <\/strong> is two or more atoms that have been chemically combined. A <strong> molecular <\/strong> <strong> formula <\/strong> is a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of the compound. Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen as shown below:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211251\/20140811155212743092.png\" alt=\"Molecular formula of ammonia\" width=\"400\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Note from the example that there are some standard rules to follow in writing molecular formulas. The arrangements of the elements depend on the particular structure, so we will not concern ourselves with that point right now. The number of atoms of each kind is indicated by a subscript following the atom. If there is only one atom, no number is written. If there is more than one atom of a specific kind, the number is written as a subscript following the atom. We would not write N<sub>3<\/sub>H for ammonia, because that would mean that there are three nitrogen atoms and one hydrogen atom in the molecule, which is incorrect.<\/p>\n<p>The molecular formula does not tell us anything about the shape of the molecule or where the different atoms are. The molecular formula for sucrose (table sugar) is C<sub>12<\/sub>H<sub>22<\/sub>O<sub>11<\/sub>. This simply tells us the number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the molecule. There is nothing said about where the individual atoms are located. We need a much more complicated formula (shown below) to communicate that information. <em><br \/>\n<\/em><\/p>\n<p><strong> <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211253\/20140811155212825865.png\" alt=\"Structural formula of sucrose\" width=\"250\" \/><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>A molecular formula tells us what atoms and how many of each type of atom are present in a molecule.<\/li>\n<li>If only one atom of a specific type is present, no subscript is used.<\/li>\n<li>For atoms that have two or more present, a subscript is written after the symbol for that atom.<\/li>\n<li>Molecular formulas do not indicate how the atoms are arranged in the molecule.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/composition\/formmolcmpds.html\"> http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/composition\/formmolcmpds.html <\/a><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>How many carbon atoms and how many hydrogen atoms are in the benzene molecule?<\/li>\n<li>How many oxygen atoms are in one molecule of water?<\/li>\n<li>How many oxygen atoms are in one molecule of acetic acid?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What does a molecular formula tell us?<\/li>\n<li>What does a molecular formula not tell us?<\/li>\n<li>What do the subscripts mean in a molecular formula?<\/li>\n<li>If I wrote C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>11<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub>C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>11<\/sub>O<sub>6 <\/sub> as the molecular formula for sucrose, would that be correct? Explain your answer.<\/li>\n<li>Sometimes the formula for acetic acid is written CH<sub>3<\/sub>COOH. Is this a true molecular formula?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> molecule: <\/strong> Two or more atoms that have been chemically combined.<\/li>\n<li><strong> molecular formula: <\/strong> A chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of the compound.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Empirical Formula<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define empirical formula.<\/li>\n<li>Describe how to determine the empirical formula for a compound.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>What might the scientists in this picture be discussing?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Lavoisier Sketch\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211254\/20140811155213016613.png\" alt=\"Antoine Lavoisier's laboratory\" width=\"400\" \/><\/p>\n<p>When the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier conducted his experiments, he did not know what the products of reactions were going to be. He had to isolate the material (whether he was heating mercury or measuring gases from breathing) and then study its elemental composition before he could understand the processes that were occurring.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Discovering that a new compound exists is the start of a long research project. In order to make this new compound in the lab, we need to know a lot about its structure. Often, the place to start is to determine the elements in the material. Then we can find out the relative amounts of each element to continue our evaluation of this new material.<\/p>\n<p>An <strong> empirical <\/strong> <strong> formula <\/strong> is a formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio. Glucose is an important simple sugar that cells use as their primary source of energy. Its molecular formula is C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>12<\/sub>O<sub>6<\/sub>. Since each of the subscripts is divisible by 6, the empirical formula for glucose is CH<sub>2<\/sub>O. When chemists analyze an unknown compound, often the first step is to determine its empirical formula. There are a great many compounds whose molecular and empirical formulas are the same. If the molecular formula cannot be simplified into a smaller whole-number ratio, as in the case of H<sub>2<\/sub>O or P<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub>, then the empirical formula is also the molecular formula.<\/p>\n<p>How would we determine an empirical formula for a compound? Let\u2019s take a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. We can analyze the relative amounts of each element in the compound. When we get a percent figure for each element, we now know how many grams of each are in 100 grams of the original material. This allows us to determine the number of moles for each element. The ratios can then be reduced to small whole numbers to give the empirical formula. If we wanted a molecular formula, we would need to determine the molecular weight of the compound.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The empirical formula tells the lowest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound.<\/li>\n<li>The empirical formula does not show the actual number of atoms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Read <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160116212137\/http:\/\/pages.towson.edu\/ladon\/empiric.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this page on empirical formulas<\/a> to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>How is an empirical formula calculated?<\/li>\n<li>How is the number of moles determined from the percent composition?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Define \u201cempirical formula.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>Why is C <sub> 6 <\/sub> H <sub> 12 <\/sub> O <sub> 6 <\/sub> not considered to be an empirical formula for glucose?<\/li>\n<li>Can the empirical formula for a compound be the same as the molecular formula?<\/li>\n<li>What do we need to know in order to determine a molecular formula from an empirical formula?<\/li>\n<li>Give three examples of compounds whose empirical formulas are the same as their molecular formulas.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> empirical formula: <\/strong> A\u00a0formula that shows the elements in a compound in their lowest whole-number ratio.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Cations<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define cation.<\/li>\n<li>Explain how cations are formed.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the naming of cations.<\/li>\n<li>Describe how cations are designated.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Have you ever gone digging for gold?<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" title=\"Gold Nuggets\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211255\/20140811155213159859.jpeg\" alt=\"Native gold nuggets\" width=\"200\" height=\"194\" \/>When the prospectors during the California Gold Rush (1848\u20131855) searched for gold nuggets in the earth, they were able to find these nuggets because gold is an unreactive material that exists in its elemental state in many places.<\/p>\n<p>Not everyone was fortunate enough to find large nuggets such as those shown, but a number of these miners did become very wealthy (of course, a large number of others went back home broke).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Many of the elements we know about do not exist in their native form. They are so reactive that they are found only in compounds. These non-elemental forms are known as ions. Their properties are very different from those of the elements they come from. The term comes from a Greek word meaning \u201cmove\u201d and was first coined by Michael Faraday, who studied the movement of materials in an electrical field.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 522px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-Q2F0aW9uX0Zvcm1hdGlvbg..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211256\/20140811155213284991.jpeg\" alt=\"Electron configuration of sodium metal and sodium cation\" width=\"512\" height=\"304\" longdesc=\"Sodium%20loses%20an%20electron%20to%20become%20a%20cation.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1.\u00a0Sodium loses an electron to become a cation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Some elements lose one or more electrons in forming ions. These ions are known as \u201c<strong>cations<\/strong>\u201d because they are positively charged and migrate toward the negative electrode (<strong>cathode<\/strong>) in an electrical field. Looking at the periodic table below, we know that the group 1 elements are all characterized by having one <em> s <\/em> electron in the outer orbit and group 2 elements have two <em> s <\/em> electrons in the outer orbit. These electrons are loosely attached to the atom and can easily be removed, leaving more protons in the atom that there are electrons, so the resulting ion has a positive charge. Cations can also be formed from electron loss to many of the transition elements.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 522px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-SW50Q2gtMDYtMDUtRWxlY3Ryb24tY29uZi10YWJsZQ..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211258\/20140811155214072785.png\" alt=\"The periodic table\" width=\"512\" height=\"335\" longdesc=\"Periodic%20table%20of%20elements%2C%20notated%20with%20group%20numbers.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2.\u00a0Periodic table of elements, notated with group numbers.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The cations are designated by the symbol for the parent element and a plus charge as a superscript after the element symbol: the potassium cation would be indicated as K<sup>+<\/sup>. Note that the charge is placed after the symbol and not before it. The potassium ion is <strong> monovalent<\/strong>, meaning that it has lost one electron and has a +1 charge. The symbol for the magnesium cation would be Mg<sup>2+ <\/sup> or Mg<sup>++ <\/sup> to indicate that it has lost two electrons and has a +2 charge, so the magnesium cation would be referred to as a <strong> divalent <\/strong> cation.<\/p>\n<p>The cations are simply named as the parent element. The sodium cation is still called \u201csodium.\u201d Often, the charge would be attached for clarity, so the sodium cation might be referred to as \u201csodium one plus.\u201d<\/p>\n<h3>Applications of Cations<\/h3>\n<p>Cations play important roles in our daily lives. Sodium, potassium, and magnesium ions are essential for such processes as blood pressure regulation and muscle contraction. Calcium ion is an important part of bone structure. Sodium ions can used in water softeners to remove other harmful elements. We put sodium chloride (table salt) on our food and use it as a preservative.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Cations are formed by the loss of one or two electrons from an element.<\/li>\n<li>Groups 1 and 2 elements form cations.<\/li>\n<li>Cations are named according to the parent element.<\/li>\n<li>Cation charges are indicated with a superscript following the chemical symbol.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/dl.clackamas.edu\/ch104-07\/cations.htm\"> http:\/\/dl.clackamas.edu\/ch104-07\/cations.htm <\/a><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>How many electrons are there in the outer shell of Group IA elements?<\/li>\n<li>What is the charge of Group IA ions?<\/li>\n<li>How many electrons are there in the outer shell of Group IIA elements?<\/li>\n<li>What is the charge of Group IIA ions?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is an ion?<\/li>\n<li>What is the cathode?<\/li>\n<li>Write the symbol for the barium cation.<\/li>\n<li>Write the symbol for the cesium cation.<\/li>\n<li>List three ways cations are useful.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> cation: <\/strong> Ions known as cations are because they are positively charged and migrate toward the negative electrode (cathode) in an electrical field.<\/li>\n<li><strong> monovalent: <\/strong> Has a +1 charge.<\/li>\n<li><strong> divalent: <\/strong> Has a +2 charge.<\/li>\n<li><strong> cathode: <\/strong> Negative electrode.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Anions<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define anion.<\/li>\n<li>Explain how anions are formed.<\/li>\n<li>Describe anion nomenclature.<\/li>\n<li>List uses for anions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>What does the amount of salt in seaweed tell us?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Seaweed\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211259\/20140811155214137006.jpeg\" alt=\"Iodine can be found in seaweed\" width=\"200\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Before iodized salt was developed, some people experienced a number of developmental difficulties, including problems with thyroid gland function and mental retardation. In the 1920s, we learned that these conditions could usually be treated easily with the addition of iodide anion to the diet. One easy way to increase iodide intake was to add the anion to table salt. This simple step greatly enhanced health and development. Large amounts of iodide ion are also found in seaweed such as kelp (see picture above) and saltwater fish.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>When a metal loses an electron, energy is needed to remove that electron. The other part of this process involves the addition of the electron to another element. The electron adds to the outer shell of the new element. Just as the loss of the electron from the metal produces a full shell, when the electron or electrons are added to the new element, it also results in a full shell.<\/p>\n<p><strong> Anions <\/strong> are negative ions that are formed when a <strong> nonmetal <\/strong> atom gains one or more electrons. Anions are so named because they are attracted to the <strong> anode <\/strong> (positive field) in an electric field. Atoms typically gain electrons so that they will have the electron configuration of a noble gas. All the elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons due to the outer <em> ns <\/em> <sup>2<\/sup><em> np <\/em> <sup> 5 <\/sup> configuration. Therefore, each of these elements would gain one electron and become an anion with a 1\u2212 charge. Likewise, Group 16 elements form ions with a 2\u2212 charge, and the Group 15 nonmetals form ions with a 3\u2212 charge.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Periodic Table\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211300\/20140811155214285615.png\" alt=\"Pauling electronegativity values of the periodic table\" width=\"560\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Naming anions is slightly different than naming cations. The ending of the element\u2019s name is dropped and replaced with the \u2013 <em> ide <\/em> suffix. For example, F <sup> &#8211; <\/sup> is the fluoride ion, while O <sup> 2- <\/sup> is the oxide ion. As is the case with cations, the charge on the anion is indicated by a superscript following the symbol. Common anions are listed in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below <strong> : <\/strong><\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-ZGU3OWUwZmFlZjBmZDY4YWM3ZWUzYTM0YzEwZjVmMzk.-esh\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Anion Name <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Symbol and Charge <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>fluoride<\/td>\n<td>F <sup> &#8211; <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>chloride<\/td>\n<td>Cl <sup><sub> &#8211; <\/sub><\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>bromide<\/td>\n<td>Br <sup> &#8211; <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>iodide<\/td>\n<td>I <sup> &#8211; <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>oxide<\/td>\n<td>O <sup> 2- <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>sulfide<\/td>\n<td>S <sup> 2- <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>nitride<\/td>\n<td>N <sup> 3- <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Uses for Anions<\/h3>\n<p>Fluoride ion is widely used in water supplies to help prevent tooth decay. Chloride is an important component in ion balance in blood. Iodide ion is needed by the thyroid gland to make the hormone thyroxine.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Anions are formed by the addition of one or more electrons to the outer shell of an atom.<\/li>\n<li>Group 17 elements add one electron to the outer shell, group 16 elements add two electrons, and group 15 elements add three electrons.<\/li>\n<li>Anions are named by dropping the ending of the element\u2019s name and adding &#8211; <em> ide.<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Read this page about <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160306124012\/http:\/\/preparatorychemistry.com\/bishop_anion_names_formulas_help.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Anion Nomenclature<\/a> to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Why do elements form anions?<\/li>\n<li>Why do group 17 elements form anions more readily than group 1 elements?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is an anion?<\/li>\n<li>How are anions formed?<\/li>\n<li>Why do anions form?<\/li>\n<li>How are anions named?<\/li>\n<li>List three examples of anions with names, charges, and chemical symbols.<\/li>\n<li>List three ways anions are used.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> anion: <\/strong> Negative ions that are formed when a nonmetal atom gains one or more electrons.<\/li>\n<li><strong> anode: <\/strong> Positively charged electrode, when electric current runs through a cathode ray tube.<\/li>\n<li><strong> nonmetal: <\/strong> Lacking the chemical and physical properties of metals.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Transition Metal Ions<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the electron configuration of the transition metals.<\/li>\n<li>Explain how transition metals form ions.<\/li>\n<li>List uses for transition metal ions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>What kind of coin is this?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" title=\"Platinum Eagle\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211302\/20140811155214372966.jpeg\" alt=\"Platinum eagle coin\" width=\"200\" \/>Most of us are familiar with the common coins: penny, nickel, quarter. In some areas (such as Las Vegas), you might see large amounts of silver dollars (these get a little heavy in your pocket). But most of us have probably never seen a platinum eagle\u2014an eagle coin, but one that is held primarily by collectors.<\/p>\n<p>If you were to take a one-ounce platinum eagle into a store and try to buy one hundred dollars worth of items, the store owner most likely would not believe you when you told them the coin was worth one hundred dollars. It would also be awkward and annoying if you lost one of these coins out of your pocket. Platinum is just one of several transition metals that is worth a lot of money (gold is another one).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The group 1 and 2 elements form cations through a simple process that involves the loss of one or more outer shell electrons. These electrons come from the <em> s <\/em> orbital and are removed very readily.<\/p>\n<p>Most <strong> transition <\/strong> <strong> metals <\/strong> differ from the metals of Groups 1, 2, and 13 in that they are capable of forming more than one cation with different ionic charges. As an example, iron commonly forms two different ions. It can sometimes lose two electrons to form the Fe<sup>2+ <\/sup> ion, while at other times it loses three electrons to form the Fe<sup>3+ <\/sup> ion. Tin and lead, though members of the <em> p <\/em> block rather than the <strong> <em> d <\/em> block<\/strong>, also are capable of forming multiple ions.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Periodic Table\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211304\/20140811155214528617.png\" alt=\"Transition elements on the periodic table\" width=\"560\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Ionic formation for transition metals is complicated by the fact that these elements have unfilled inner <em> d <\/em> shells. Although the next higher <em> s <\/em> orbitals are actually at a lower energy level than the <em> d <\/em> level, these <em> s <\/em> electrons are the ones that are removed during ionization.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong> Table <\/strong> below lists the names and formulas of some of the common transition metal ions:<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-Yjk3Njc1NjE5NWY3ZjVhZTMxNGFiNzUxODA1MTYzMmU.-a4q\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<caption>Common Transition Metal Ions<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> 1+ <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> 2+ <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> 3+ <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> 4+ <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>copper(I), Cu <sup> + <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>cadmium, Cd <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>chromium(III),\u00a0Cr <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>lead(IV), Pb <sup> 4+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>gold(I), Au <sup> + <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>chromium(II), Cr <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>cobalt(III), Co <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>tin(IV), Sn <sup> 4+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>mercury(I), Hg <sub>2<\/sub><sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>cobalt(II), Co <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>gold(III), Au <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>silver, Ag <sup> + <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>copper(II), Cu <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td>iron(III), Fe <sup> 3+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>iron(II), Fe <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>lead(II), Pb <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>manganese(II), Mn <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>mercury(II), Hg <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>nickel(II), Ni <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>platinum(II), Pt <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>tin(II), Sn <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>zinc, Zn <sup> 2+ <\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Uses for Transition Metals<\/h3>\n<p>Because there are so many metals in this group, there are a wide variety of uses. Many of the metals are used in electronics, while others (such as gold and silver) are used in monetary systems. Iron is a versatile structural material. Cobalt, nickel, platinum, and other metals are employed as catalysts in a number of chemical reactions. Zinc is a significant component of batteries.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Transtion metals have unfilled inner <em> d <\/em> electron shells.<\/li>\n<li>Ions form primarily through loss of <em> s <\/em> electrons.<\/li>\n<li>Many transition metals can form more than one ion.<\/li>\n<li>Transition metals have a wide variety of applications.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the links below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/chemed.chem.purdue.edu\/genchem\/topicreview\/bp\/ch12\/trans.php\"> http:\/\/chemed.chem.purdue.edu\/genchem\/topicreview\/bp\/ch12\/trans.php <\/a><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>List some similarities between transition metals and main-group metals.<\/li>\n<li>List some differences between transition metals and main-group metals.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the electron configurations of the cobalt ions.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is unique about the electron configurations of transition metals?<\/li>\n<li>Which electrons of transition metal elements are most likely to be lost duing ion formation?<\/li>\n<li>How many ions can iron form?<\/li>\n<li>Which transition metal forms only one ion?<\/li>\n<li>List several uses for transition metals.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> transition metal: <\/strong> Can come from more than on ion and have unfilled inner <em>d<\/em>\u00a0 electron shells.<\/li>\n<li><strong><em>d\u00a0<\/em>block: <\/strong> Capable of forming multiple ions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Naming Binary Ionic Compounds<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe rules for naming binary ionic compounds.<\/li>\n<li>Describe how to name compounds in which the metal can have more than one ionic form.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Do you know the proper name for this insect?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Insect\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211305\/20140811155214645869.png\" alt=\"Insect naming is like naming compounds\" width=\"200\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Proper naming is important for identification purposes. Medicine names must be precise so that the correct drug is given, one that will help the patient and not harm them. Biological classification of species requires accurate naming for proper categorization. The insect above has been properly categorized by genus and species, so it is uniquely identified. Names must be correct for the tracing family trees in genealogical studies. Compounds used in chemical reactions must be correctly specified in order for the reaction to occur.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>A <strong> binary <\/strong> ionic compound is a compound composed of a <strong> monatomic <\/strong> metal <strong> cation <\/strong> and a monatomic nonmetal <strong> anion <\/strong> .<\/p>\n<p>When examining the formula of a compound in order to name it, you must first decide what kind of compound it is. For a binary ionic compound, a metal will always be the first element in the formula, while a nonmetal will always be the second. The metal cation is named first, followed by the nonmetal anion. Subscripts in the formula do not affect the name. The <strong> Table <\/strong> below shows three examples:<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-OWUzOTZjN2ZhMWYxMmJiZmRjOTkxMDhiYjcwNzg2NjU.-5gx\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<caption><strong> Naming Binary Ionic Compounds <\/strong><\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>KF<\/td>\n<td>potassium fluoride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Na <sub>3<\/sub> N<\/td>\n<td>sodium nitride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ca <sub>3<\/sub> P <sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>calcium phosphide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Notice that in each of the formulas above, the overall charge of the compound is zero. Potassium ion is K<sup>+<\/sup>, while fluoride ion is F<sup>\u2212<\/sup>. Since the magnitude of the charges is equal, the formula contains one of each ion. This would also be the case for a compound such as MgS, in which the ions are Mg<sup>2+<\/sup> and S<sup>2\u2212<\/sup>. For sodium nitride, the sodium ion is Na<sup>+<\/sup>, while the nitride ion is N<sup>3\u2212<\/sup>. In order to make a neutral compound, three of the 1+ sodium ions are required in order to balance out the single 3\u2212 nitride ion. So the Na is given a subscript of 3. For calcium phosphide, the calcium ion is Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>, while the phosphide ion is P<sup>3\u2212<\/sup>. The least common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6. To make the compound neutral, three calcium ions have a total charge of 6+, while two phosphide ions have a total charge of 6\u2212. The Ca is given a subscript of 3, while the P is given a subscript of 2.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>A binary ionic compound is a compound composed of a monatomic metal cation and a monatomic nonmetal anion.<\/li>\n<li>The metal part of the compound is named as the element.<\/li>\n<li>The non-metallic part of the compound is named by dropping the end of the element and adding &#8211;<em>ide. <\/em><\/li>\n<li>For binary compounds, it is not necessary to indicate the number of ions in the compound <em> .<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is the stem for compounds using the oxygen anion.<\/li>\n<li>How would you name AlN?<\/li>\n<li>How would you name NaCl?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is a binary compound?<\/li>\n<li>Which of the following is not a binary compound?\n<ol>\n<li>NaCl<\/li>\n<li>KH<sub>2<\/sub>PO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>KBr<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Name the following compounds:\n<ol>\n<li>NaBr<\/li>\n<li>MgCl<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>LiI<\/li>\n<li>CaO<\/li>\n<li>CuBr<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>FeO<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> binary: <\/strong> A compound composed of a monatomic metal cation and a monatomic nonmetal anion.<\/li>\n<li><strong> monatomic: <\/strong> Has one atom.<\/li>\n<li><strong> cation: <\/strong> Ions known as cations are because they are positively charged and migrate toward the negative electrode (cathode) in an electrical field.<\/li>\n<li><strong> anion: <\/strong> Negative ions that are formed when a nonmetal atom gains one or more electrons.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Stock System Naming<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define the Stock system for naming ionic compounds.<\/li>\n<li>Name compounds using the Stock system.<\/li>\n<li>Write formulas of compounds when given the Stock name.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>How is an mp3 player designed?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"MP3 Player\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211307\/20140811155214781017.png\" alt=\"Models of an MP3 player are like ions of transition metals\" width=\"500\" \/><\/p>\n<p>In describing many technological items, it&#8217;s not enough to simply say what brand or model we have. We talk about details such as how much horsepower is \u201cunder the hood\u201d for a car or how fast the chip is for our computer. Even a simple device like an mp3 player has more than one size. We can get an 8 MB player, or a 16 MB player. Designation of the item often is incomplete without other information as to its capabilities.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Transition metals have more than one possibility for ion formation. In order to name these compounds correctly, we need to be able to indicate which ion is involved in any given compound.<\/p>\n<h3>Naming Compounds Using the Stock System<\/h3>\n<p>Naming compounds that involve transition metal cations necessitates the use of the <strong> Stock <\/strong> <strong> system<\/strong>. Consider the binary ionic compound FeCl<sub>3<\/sub>. To simply name this compound iron chloride would be incomplete because iron is capable of forming two ions with different charges. The name of any iron-containing compound must reflect which iron ion is in the compound. In this case, the subscript in the formula indicates that there are three chloride ions, each with a 1\u2212 charge. Therefore, the charge of the single iron ion must be 3+. The correct name of FeCl<sub>3<\/sub> is iron(III) chloride, with the cation charge written as the Roman numeral. Here are several other examples.<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-N2U1MTlhNzgzZjU4MTI2OTUyYjE4MjY2ZmQ1YWY2M2Q.-tuv\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cu<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/td>\n<td>copper(I) oxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>CuO<\/td>\n<td>copper(II) oxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>SnO<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>tin(IV) oxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The first two examples are both oxides of copper (shown in\u00a0<strong>Figure <\/strong> 3). The ratio of copper ions to oxide ions determines the name. Since the oxide ion is O<sup><sub>2\u2212<\/sub><\/sup>, the charges of the copper ion must be 1+ in the first formula and 2+ in the second formula. In the third formula, there is one tin ion for every two oxide ions. This means that the tin must carry a 4+ charge, making the name tin(IV) oxide.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 170px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM2MDA4NzI5Ny0yMi0xMS1DLUludENoLTAyLTA0LTA3LUNvcHBlci1PeGlkZXM.\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211308\/20140811155214898665.png\" alt=\"Copper I and II oxides have different colors\" width=\"160\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Copper%28I%29%20oxide%2C%20a%20red%20solid%2C%20and%20copper%28II%29%20oxide%2C%20a%20black%20solid%2C%20are%20different%20compounds%20because%20of%20the%20charge%20of%20the%20copper%20ion.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Copper(I) oxide, a red solid, and copper(II) oxide, a black solid, are different compounds because of the charge of the copper ion.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>The Stock system allows the specification of transition metal ionic charge when naming ionic compounds.<\/li>\n<li>Roman numerals are used to indicate the amount of positive charge on the cation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Practice naming compounds at the following web site:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Stock-FormulatoName.html\"> http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Stock-FormulatoName.html<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is the Stock system?<\/li>\n<li>For which group of metal ions would we use the Stock system?<\/li>\n<li>What does the Roman numeral stand for?<\/li>\n<li>Assign a Roman numeral to each of the following cations:\n<ol>\n<li>Sn<sup>4+ <\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Fe<sup>3+ <\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Co<sup>2+ <\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Pb<sup>4+<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> Stock system: <\/strong> Allows the specification of transition metal ionic charge when naming ionic compounds.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Be able to write formulas for binary ionic compounds when given the name.<\/li>\n<li>Be able to name the binary ionic compound when given the formula.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>How does shorthand work?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Shorthand\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211309\/20140811155214997246.jpeg\" alt=\"Chemical symbols are like shorthand\" width=\"400\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Shorthand was a very popular way of recording speech, especially in dictating letters and in court testimony. Instead of trying to write out all the words, the person taking the dictation would use a set of symbols that represented syllables or words. The pages above show a shorthand version of \u201cA Christmas Carol\u201d written by Charles Dickens. Unless you know shorthand, the passage is meaningless. But knowing shorthand allows you to read this classic story.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Different professions also use a type of shorthand in communication to save time. Chemists use chemical symbols in combination to indicate specific compounds. There are two advantages to this approach:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>The compound under discussion is clearly described so there can be no confusion about its identity.<\/li>\n<li>Chemical symbols represent a universal language that all chemists can understand, no matter what their native language is.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3>Writing Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds<\/h3>\n<p>If you know the name of a binary ionic compound, you can write its <strong> chemical <\/strong> <strong> formula <\/strong> . Start by writing the metal ion with its charge, followed by the nonmetal ion with its charge. Because the overall compound must be electrically neutral, decide how many of each ion is needed in order for the positive and negative charge to cancel each other out. Consider the compound aluminum nitride. The ions are:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"x-ck12-math aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211310\/2685f1a713e2ccaa75490f015f57ad54.png\" alt=\"text{Al}^{3+} quad text{N}^{3-}\" width=\"82\" height=\"17\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Since the ions have charges that are equal in magnitude, one of each will be the lowest ratio of ions in the formula. The formula of aluminum nitride is AlN.<\/p>\n<p>The ions for the compound lithium oxide are:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"x-ck12-math aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211311\/abbd0d61c5d7cf84ec4d1b4c7155e877.png\" alt=\"text{Li}^+ quad text{O}^{2-}\" width=\"74\" height=\"17\" \/><\/p>\n<p>In this case, two lithium ions are required to balance out the charge of one oxide ion. The formula of lithium oxide is Li <sub>2<\/sub> O.<\/p>\n<p>An alternative way to writing a correct formula for an ionic compound is to use the crisscross method. In this method, the numerical value of each of the ion charges is crossed over to become the subscript of the other ion. Signs of the charges are dropped. Shown below is the crisscross method for aluminum oxide.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Al2O3 Cross\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211312\/20140811155215197623.jpg\" alt=\"Crisscross method for aluminum oxide\" width=\"100\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The red arrows indicate that the 3 from the 3+ charge will cross over to become the subscript of the O. The 2 from the 2\u2212 charge will cross over to become the subscript of the Al. The formula for aluminum oxide is Al <sub>2<\/sub> O <sub>3<\/sub> .<\/p>\n<p>Be aware that ionic compounds are empirical formulas and so must be written as the lowest ratio of the ions. In the case of aluminum nitride, the crisscross method would yield a formula of Al <sub>3<\/sub> N <sub>3<\/sub> , which is not correct. It must be reduced to AlN. Following the crisscross method to write the formula for lead(IV) oxide would involve the following steps:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"PbO2 Cross\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211313\/20140811155215325137.jpg\" alt=\"Crisscross method for lead (IV) oxide\" width=\"100\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The crisscross first yields Pb <sub>2<\/sub> O <sub>4<\/sub> for the formula, but that must be reduced to the lower ratio and PbO <sub>2<\/sub> is the correct formula.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Formulas for binary compounds begin with the metal followed by the non-metal.<\/li>\n<li>Positive and negative charges must cancel each other out.<\/li>\n<li>Ionic compound formulas are written using the lowest ratio of ions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Comm-NametoFormula.html\"> http:\/\/www.chemteam.info\/Nomenclature\/Binary-Comm-NametoFormula.html <\/a><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>How did Lavoisier improve chemical nomenclature?<\/li>\n<li>Practice writing formulas using some of the examples given here.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Write formulas for the binary ionic compounds formed between the following pairs of elements:\n<ol>\n<li>cesium and fluorine<\/li>\n<li>calcium and sulfur<\/li>\n<li>aluminum and chlorine<\/li>\n<li>zinc and nitrogen<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Write the formula and give the name for the compound formed by the following ions:\n<ol>\n<li>Fe<sup>3+<\/sup> and O<sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Ni<sup>2+<\/sup> and S<sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Au<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Sn<sup>4+<\/sup> and I<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Give names for the following compounds:\n<ol>\n<li>Ag<sub>2<\/sub>S<\/li>\n<li>PdO<\/li>\n<li>PtCl<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>V<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> chemical formula: <\/strong> Use of chemical symbols in combination to indicate specific compounds.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Polyatomic Ions<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Be able to write structures for polyatomic ions when given the name.<\/li>\n<li>Be able to name polyatomic ions when given the structures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Have you ever read the story of Romeo and Juliet?<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" title=\"Bella Rosa\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211314\/20140811155215419716.jpeg\" alt=\"The names of polyatomic ions often contain both a prefix and a suffix\" width=\"350\" height=\"233\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Shakespeare once wrote, \u201cA rose by any other name would smell as sweet,\u201d part of the romantic balcony scene between Romeo and Juliet in the play of that name. The two families were bitter rivals, but Juliet was saying she loved Romeo no matter what his name was.<\/p>\n<p>Some names are simple\u2014we know Romeo mainly as Romeo. Most have us have a first name, middle name (often not used), and last name. In some cultures, names will be much more complex. The full name of the famous 20<sup>th <\/sup> century artist Pablo Picasso is Pablo Diego Jos\u00e9 Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno Mar\u00eda de los Remedios Cipriano de la Sant\u00edsima Trinidad Martyr Patricio Clito Ru\u00edz y Picass.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Many materials exist as simple binary compounds composed of a metal cation and a non-metal anion, with each ion consisting of only one type of atom. Other combinations of atoms also exist, either larger ionic complexes or complete molecules. Some of the most useful materials we work with contain polyatomic ions.<\/p>\n<p>A <strong> polyatomic <\/strong> ion is an ion composed of more than one atom. The ammonium ion consists of one nitrogen atom and four oxygen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula of NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>. The carbonate ion consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms and carries an overall charge of 2\u2212. The formula of the carbonate ion is CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>. The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together and so the entire ion behaves as a single unit. The figures below show several models.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 33%;\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Ammonium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211316\/20140811155215506977.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of an ammonium ion\" width=\"150\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 33%;\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Hydroxide\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211317\/20140811155215612653.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of a hydroxide\u00a0ion\" width=\"150\" \/><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 33%;\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Carbonate\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211319\/20140811155215768718.jpg\" alt=\"Structure of a\u00a0carbonate ion\" width=\"150\" \/><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>A. The ammonium ion (NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>) is a nitrogen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (white).<\/td>\n<td>B. The hydroxide ion (OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup>) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded to a hydrogen atom.<\/td>\n<td>\u00a0C. The carbonate ion (CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>) is a carbon atom (black) bonded to three oxygen atoms.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The <strong> Table <\/strong> below lists a number of polyatomic ions by name and by structure. The heading for each column indicates the charge on the polyatomic ions in that group. Note that the vast majority of the ions listed are anions \u2013 there are very few polyatomic cations.<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"5\">Common Polyatomic Ions<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>1\u2212<\/th>\n<th>2\u2212<\/th>\n<th>3\u2212<\/th>\n<th>1+<\/th>\n<th>2+<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>acetate, CH<sub>3<\/sub>COO<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>carbonate, CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>arsenate, AsO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>ammonium, NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>dimercury, Hg<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2+<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>bromate, BrO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>chromate, CrO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>phosphite, PO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>chlorate, ClO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>dichromate, Cr<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>7<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>phosphate, PO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>chlorite, ClO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>hydrogen phosphate, HPO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>cyanide, CN<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>oxalate, C<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>dihydrogen phosphate, H<sub>2<\/sub>PO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>peroxide, O<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hydrogen carbonate, HCO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>silicate, SiO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hydrogen sulfate, HSO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>sulfate, SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hydrogen sulfide, HS<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td>sulfite, SO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hydroxide, OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>hypochlorite, ClO<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>nitrate, NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>nitrite, NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>perchlorate, ClO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>permanganate, MnO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in <em> \u2013ate <\/em> or <em> \u2013ite<\/em>. Notice that in some cases such as nitrate (NO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>) and nitrite (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>), there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. In these cases, the difference between the ions is in the number of oxygen atoms present, while the overall charge is the same. As a class, these are called oxoanions. When there are two oxoanions for a particular element, the one with the greater number of oxygen atoms gets the <em> \u2013ate <\/em> suffix, while the one with the fewer number of oxygen atoms gets the <em> \u2013ite <\/em> suffix. The four oxoanions of chlorine are shown below.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>ClO<sup>\u2212<\/sup>, hypochlorite<\/li>\n<li>ClO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>, chlorite<\/li>\n<li>ClO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>, chlorate<\/li>\n<li>ClO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>, perchlorate<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In cases such as this, the ion with one more oxygen atom than the <em> \u2013ate <\/em> anion is given a <em> per- <\/em> prefix. The ion with one fewer oxygen atom than the <em> \u2013ite <\/em> anion is given a <em> hypo- <\/em> prefix.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Polyatomic ions contain more than one type of atom in the ion.<\/li>\n<li>The majority of polyatomic ions are anions that are named ending in \u201cate\u201d or \u201cite.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>Some anions have multiple forms and are named accordingly.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Look at <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160308071757\/http:\/\/www2.pvc.maricopa.edu\/tutor\/chem\/chem130\/nomenclature\/polyatomicion.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this page on polyatomic ions<\/a> to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>List the polyatomic cations.<\/li>\n<li>How many polyatomic ions of chromium are there? Write out the formulas and names each ion.<\/li>\n<li>How many polyatomic ions of chlorine are there? Write out the formulas and name each ion.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Write the formulas for the following ions:\n<ol>\n<li>ammonium<\/li>\n<li>carbonate<\/li>\n<li>sulfate<\/li>\n<li>phosphate?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Name the following ions:\n<ol>\n<li>PO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>3\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>SiO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>MnO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> polyatomic: <\/strong> An ion composed of more than one atom.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Names and Formulas of Ternary Ionic Compounds<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Be able to write structures for ternary ionic compounds when given the name.<\/li>\n<li>Be able to name ternary ionic compounds when given the structures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>How many varieties of pizza can you think of?<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" title=\"Pizza\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211320\/20140811155215892501.jpeg\" alt=\"Combinations of pizza toppings are like combinations of ions\" width=\"349\" height=\"221\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Most people enjoy eating pizza. When they order a pizza (either by phone, on-line, or in a restaurant), they don\u2019t just order \u201cpizza.\u201d Even the simplest \u201cbinary\u201d pizza will have a topping and cheese \u2013 maybe pepperoni, maybe something else.<\/p>\n<p>However, many pizzas quickly become more complex. One person may want pepperoni and sausage, another may wish to order Canadian bacon and pineapple, and then you have the folks that can\u2019t decide, so they order half-this and half-that. The combinations may be more complex, but the same basic ideas about pizza are valid.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Not all ionic compounds are composed of only monatomic ions. A <strong> ternary <\/strong> <strong> ionic <\/strong> <strong> compound <\/strong> is an ionic compound composed of three or more elements. In a typical ternary ionic compound, there is still one type of cation and one type of anion involved. The cation, the anion, or both, is a polyatomic ion.<\/p>\n<h3>Naming Ternary Ionic Compounds<\/h3>\n<p>The process of naming ternary ionic compounds is the same as naming binary ionic compounds. The cation is named first, followed by the anion. Some examples are shown in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below:<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-ODQ5NjJlMGM1MzllZWQwZjYyNzcxZTgzNzRkYjA5MTU.-sxr\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<caption><strong> Examples of Ternary Ionic Compounds <\/strong><\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>NaNO<sub>3<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>sodium nitrate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>NH<sub>4<\/sub>Cl<\/td>\n<td>ammonium chloride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Fe(OH)<sub>3<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>iron(III) hydroxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>When more than one polyatomic ion is present in a compound, the formula of the ion is placed in parentheses with a subscript outside of the parentheses that indicates how many of those ions are in the compound. In the last example above, there is one Fe<sup>3+ <\/sup> cation and three OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> anions.<\/p>\n<h3>Writing Formulas for Ternary Ionic Compounds<\/h3>\n<p>Writing a formula for a ternary ionic compound also involves the same steps as for a binary ionic compound. Write the symbol and charge of the cation followed by the symbol and charge of the anion. Use the crisscross method to ensure that the final formula is neutral. Calcium nitrate is composed of a calcium cation and a nitrate anion.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" title=\"Ca(NO3)2 Cross\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211322\/20140811155216070303.jpg\" alt=\"How to write the formula for calcium nitrate\" width=\"100\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The charge is balanced by the presence of two nitrate ions and one calcium ion. Parentheses are used around the nitrate ion because more than one of the polyatomic ion is needed. If only one polyatomic ion is in a formula, parentheses are not used. As an example, the formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO<sub>3<\/sub>. The carbonate ion carries a 2\u2212 charge and so exactly balances the 2+ charge of the calcium ion.<\/p>\n<p>There are two polyatomic ions that produce unusual formulas. The Hg<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2+ <\/sup> ion is called either the dimercury ion or, preferably, the mercury(I) ion. When bonded with an anion with a 1\u2212 charge, such as chloride, the formula is Hg<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>. Because the cation consists of two Hg atoms bonded together, this formula is not reduced to HgCl. Likewise, the peroxide ion, O<sub>2<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>, is also a unit that must stay together in its formulas. For example, the formula for potassium peroxide is K<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Ternary compounds are composed of three or more elements.<\/li>\n<li>Ternary compounds are named by stating the cation first, followed by the anion.<\/li>\n<li>Positive and negative charges must balance.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p>https:\/\/youtu.be\/QNijl4ZBJCw<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>What are ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions called?<\/li>\n<li>Does the \u201ccriss-cross\u201d method work for naming ternary compounds?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is a ternary compound?<\/li>\n<li>What is the basic rule for naming ternary compounds?<\/li>\n<li>Write the formulas for the following compounds:\n<ol>\n<li>mercury(II) nitrate<\/li>\n<li>ammonium phosphate<\/li>\n<li>calcium silicate<\/li>\n<li>lead(II) chromate<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Name the following compounds:\n<ol>\n<li>KClO<sub>3<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>Rb<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>Cd(NO<sub>3<\/sub>)<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>NaCN<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> ternary: <\/strong> A compound made up of three parts.<\/li>\n<li><strong> ternary ionic compound: <\/strong> An ionic compound composed of three or more elements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Naming Binary Molecular Compounds<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define molecular compound.<\/li>\n<li>Explain how molecular compounds are different from ionic compounds.<\/li>\n<li>Be able to name the compound when given the formula.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Why do so many relatives in royalty share the same name?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Edward I\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211325\/20140811155216182317.jpeg\" alt=\"Naming molecular compounds is like naming royalty\" width=\"200\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Some families name a son (usually the firstborn) after his father. So it is somewhat common to find John Smith, Jr. named after John Smith the father. A few families may take it further and name the grandson John Smith III. Countries with long histories of royalty take the naming even further. One line of kings named Henry goes up to Henry the Eighth (not the nicest guy in the world \u2013 he had six wives and two of them came to untimely ends). The use of numbering for names adds clarity to a system \u2013we always know which Henry we are talking about.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Inorganic chemical compounds can be broadly classified into two groups: ionic compounds and molecular compounds. The structure of all ionic compounds is an extended three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions. Since ionic compounds do not take the form of individual molecules, they are represented by empirical formulas. Now we will begin to examine the formulas and nomenclature of molecular compounds.<\/p>\n<h3>Molecular Compounds<\/h3>\n<p>Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete <strong> molecules<\/strong>. Examples include such familiar substance as water (H<sub>2<\/sub>O) and carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2<\/sub>). These compounds are very different from ionic compounds like sodium chloride (NaCl). Ionic compounds are formed when metal atoms lose one or more of their electrons to nonmetal atoms. The resulting cations and anions are electrostatically attracted to each other.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 202px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1OTM3NDE4NC02OC01OC1JbWFnZS0tLTI0\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211326\/20140811155216328995.png\" alt=\"Structure of a carbon dioxide molecule\" width=\"192\" height=\"118\" longdesc=\"Carbon%20dioxide%20molecules%20consist%20of%20a%20central%20carbon%20atom%20bonded%20to%202%20oxygen%20atoms.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.\u00a0Carbon dioxide molecules consist of a central carbon atom bonded to 2 oxygen atoms.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>So what holds the atoms of a molecule together? Rather than forming ions, the atoms of a molecule share their <strong> valence <\/strong> <strong> electrons <\/strong> in such a way that a <strong> bond <\/strong> forms between pairs of atoms. In a carbon dioxide molecule, there are two of these bonds, each occurring between the carbon atom and one of the two oxygen atoms.<\/p>\n<p>Larger molecules can have many, many bonds that serve to keep the molecule together. In a large sample of a given molecular compound, all of the individual molecules are identical.<\/p>\n<h3>Naming Binary Molecular Compounds<\/h3>\n<p>Recall that a molecular formula shows the number of atoms of each element that a molecule contains. A molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, so its formula is H<sub>2<\/sub>O. A molecule of octane, which is a component of gasoline, contains 8 atoms of carbon and 18 atoms of hydrogen. The molecular formula of octane is C<sub>8<\/sub>H<sub>18<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 115px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTQwMDI2NDAyMy00OC0xOS0xMzFweC1OaXRyb2dlbmRpb3hpZGU.\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211327\/20140811155216450381.jpeg\" alt=\"Bottle of nitrogen dioxide\" width=\"105\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Nitrogen%20dioxide%20%28NO%3Csub%3E2%3C\/sub%3E%29%20is%20a%20reddish-brown%20toxic%20gas%20that%20is%20a%20prominent%20air%20pollutant%20produced%20by%20internal%20combustion%20engines.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5.\u00a0<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Figure 5 shows nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2<\/sub>), which is a reddish-brown toxic gas that is a prominent air pollutant produced by internal combustion engines.<\/p>\n<p>A binary molecular compound is a molecular compound that is composed of two elements. The elements that combine to form binary molecular compounds are both nonmetal atoms. This contrasts with ionic compounds, which were formed from a metal ion and a nonmetal ion. Therefore, binary molecular compounds are different because ionic charges cannot be used to name them or to write their formulas. Another difference is that two nonmetal atoms will frequently combine with one another in a variety of ratios. Consider the elements nitrogen and oxygen. They combine to make several compounds including NO, NO<sub>2<\/sub>, and N<sub>2<\/sub>O. They all can\u2019t be called nitrogen oxide. How would someone know which one you were talking about? Each of the three compounds has very different properties and reactivity. A system to distinguish between compounds such as these is necessary.<\/p>\n<p>Prefixes are used in the names of binary molecular compounds to identify the number of atoms of each element. The <strong> Table <\/strong> below shows the prefixes up to ten.<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-OWEyZDI1MDk5ZjBhMmFkNDQ5ZmE3MTkzOTJjZDM2MWQ.-1ny\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<caption><strong> Numerical Prefixes <\/strong><\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Number of Atoms <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Prefix <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>mono-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>di-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>tri-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>tetra-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>penta-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>hexa-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7<\/td>\n<td>hepta-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>8<\/td>\n<td>octa-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>9<\/td>\n<td>nona-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>10<\/td>\n<td>deca-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The rules for using the prefix system of nomenclature of binary molecular compounds can be summarized as follows.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Generally, the less-electronegative element is written first in the formula, though there are a few exceptions. Carbon is always first in a formula and hydrogen is after nitrogen in a formula such as NH<sub>3<\/sub>. The order of common nonmetals in binary compound formulas is C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F.<\/li>\n<li>When naming, the appropriate prefix is used only if there are more than one atom of that element in the formula.<\/li>\n<li>The second element is named after the first, but with the ending of the element\u2019s name changed to \u2013 <em> ide. <\/em> The appropriate prefix is always used for the second element.<\/li>\n<li>The <em> a <\/em> or <em> o <\/em> at the end of a prefix is usually dropped from the name when the name of the element begins with a vowel. As an example, four oxygen atoms is tetroxide instead of tetraoxide.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Some examples of molecular compounds are listed in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below .<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-NGYwYWRjNzFmZTE4NzE2ZjhmMmU2ZGFlODk4NWZlODE.-nxf\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Formula <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Name <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>NO<\/td>\n<td>nitrogen monoxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>N<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/td>\n<td>dinitrogen monoxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>S<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>disulfur dichloride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>7 <\/sub><\/td>\n<td>dichlorine heptoxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Notice that the mono- prefix is not used with the nitrogen in the first compound, but is used with the oxygen in both of the first two examples. The S<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>2<\/sub> emphasizes that the formulas for molecular compounds are not reduced to their lowest ratios. The <em> o <\/em> of mono- and the <em> a <\/em> of hepta- are dropped from the name when paired with oxide.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Molecular compounds are inorganic compounds that take the form of discrete molecules.<\/li>\n<li>The atoms of these compounds are held together by covalent bonds.<\/li>\n<li>Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of an element that are in the compound.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/chemical-nomenclature\/bimolcmpds.html\"> http:\/\/www.iun.edu\/~cpanhd\/C101webnotes\/chemical-nomenclature\/bimolcmpds.html <\/a><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>What order is used to write the elements of a molecular compound?<\/li>\n<li>How many elements are in a binary molecular compound?<\/li>\n<li>What is the advantage of using a systematic name over a generic name?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What are molecular compounds?<\/li>\n<li>How do they differ from ionic compounds?<\/li>\n<li>What holds the atoms of a molecule together?<\/li>\n<li>Are the elements of molecular compounds metals or non-metals?<\/li>\n<li>List the prefixes for the number of atoms of an element when there are four atoms of that element in the compound.<\/li>\n<li>List the prefixes for the number of atoms of an element when there are seven atoms of that element in the compound.<\/li>\n<li>Name the following compounds:\n<ol>\n<li>ClF<sub>3<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>As<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5 <\/sub><\/li>\n<li>B<sub>4<\/sub>H<sub>10<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong> molecule: <\/strong> Two or more atoms that have been chemically combined.<\/li>\n<li><strong> bond: <\/strong> By sharing valence electrons, bonds hold the atoms of a molecule together.<\/li>\n<li><strong> valence electron: <\/strong> Can form molecules by bonding with atoms.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Naming Acids<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define acid.<\/li>\n<li>State rules for naming acids.<\/li>\n<li>Write name of acid when given formula.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>How is gold tested?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright\" title=\"Gold\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211327\/20140811155216581876.jpeg\" alt=\"Acid is used to test the identity of gold\" width=\"250\" \/><\/p>\n<p>A spot test for gold has been in use for decades. The sample is first treated with nitric acid. Other metals may react or dissolve in this acid, but gold will not. Then the sample is added to a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid.<\/p>\n<p><em>Gold will only dissolve in this mixture. <\/em><\/p>\n<p>The term \u201cacid test\u201d arose from the California gold rush in the late 1840s when this combination was used to test for the presence of real gold. It has since come to mean, \u201ctested and approved\u201d in a number of fields.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Acids<\/h3>\n<p>An <strong> acid <\/strong> can be defined in several ways. The most straightforward definition is that an acid is a molecular compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions (H<sup>+<\/sup>) when dissolved in water.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 510px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM1OTM3NTM2OC00My0zMy1JbWFnZS0tLTI3\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211330\/20140811155216687705.png\" alt=\"Vinegar contains acetic acid, grapefruit contains ascorbic and citric acid\" width=\"500\" height=\"231\" longdesc=\"%28A%29%20Vinegar%20comes%20in%20a%20variety%20of%20types%2C%20but%20all%20contain%20acetic%20acid.%20%28B%29%20Citrus%20fruits%20like%20grapefruit%20contain%20citric%20and%20ascorbic%20acids.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6.\u00a0(A) Vinegar comes in a variety of types, but all contain acetic acid. (B) Citrus fruits like grapefruit contain citric and ascorbic acids.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>This is a different type of compound than the others we have seen so far. Acids are molecular, which means that in their pure state they are individual molecules and do not adopt the extended three-dimensional structures of ionic compounds like NaCl. However, when these molecules are dissolved in water, the chemical bond between the hydrogen atom and the rest of the molecule breaks, leaving a positively-charged hydrogen ion and an anion. This can be symbolized in a chemical equation:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">HCl \u2192 H<sup>+ <\/sup> + Cl<sup>\u2212 <\/sup><\/p>\n<p>Since acids produce\u00a0H<sup>+ <\/sup> cations upon dissolving in water, the H of an acid is written first in the formula of an inorganic acid. The remainder of the acid (other than the H) is the anion after the acid dissolves. Organic acids are also an important class of compounds, but will not be discussed here. A <strong> binary <\/strong> <strong> acid <\/strong> is an acid that consists of hydrogen and one other element. The most common binary acids contain a halogen. An <strong> oxoacid <\/strong> is an acid that consists of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element. The third element is usually a nonmetal.<\/p>\n<h3>Naming Acids<\/h3>\n<p>Since all acids contain hydrogen, the name of an acid is based on the anion that goes with it. These anions can either be monatomic or polyatomic. The name of all monatomic ions ends in \u2013 <em> ide. <\/em> The majority of polyatomic ions end in either \u2013 <em> ate <\/em> or \u2013 <em> ite <\/em> , though there are a few exceptions such as the cyanide ion (CN<sup>\u2212<\/sup>). It is this suffix of the anion that determines how the acid is named as displayed in the rules and <strong> Table <\/strong> below.<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-Mjc3YTNiYmJiOGNiNzQ3ZWYyZTkwMjVmMjQ1NzgyY2Q.-4sr\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<caption><strong> Naming System for Acids <\/strong><\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong> Anion Suffix <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Example <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Name of Acid <\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong> Example <\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>&#8211; <em> ide <\/em><\/td>\n<td>chloride (Cl<sup>\u2212<\/sup>)<\/td>\n<td>hydro_____ic acid<\/td>\n<td>hydrochloric acid (HCl)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>&#8211; <em> ate <\/em><\/td>\n<td>sulfate (SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212<\/sup>)<\/td>\n<td>_____ic acid<\/td>\n<td>sulfuric acid (H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>&#8211; <em> ite <\/em><\/td>\n<td>nitrite (NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup>)<\/td>\n<td>_____ous acid<\/td>\n<td>nitrous acid (HNO<sub>2<\/sub>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The three different suffixes that are possible for the anions lead to the three rules below.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>When the anion ends in \u2013 <em> ide, <\/em> the acid name begins with the prefix <em> hydro<\/em>-. The root of the anion name goes in the blank ( <em> chlor <\/em> for chloride), followed by the suffix <em> \u2013ic <\/em> . HCl is hydrochloric acid because Cl<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> is the chloride ion. HCN is hydrocyanic acid because CN<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> is the cyanide ion.<\/li>\n<li>When the anion ends in \u2013 <em> ate, <\/em> the name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix <em> \u2013ic <\/em> . There is no prefix. H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub> is sulfuric acid (not sulfic) because\u00a0SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2\u2212 <\/sup> is the sulfate ion.<\/li>\n<li>When the anion ends in \u2013 <em> ite, <\/em> the name of the acid is the root of the anion followed by the suffix <em> \u2013ous <\/em> . Again, there is no prefix. HNO<sub>2<\/sub> is nitrous acid because NO<sub>2<\/sub><sup>\u2212 <\/sup> is the nitrite ion.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Note how the root for a sulfur-containing oxoacid is <em> sulfur- <\/em> instead of just <em> sulf-. <\/em> The same is true for a phosphorus-containing oxoacid. The root is <em> phosphor- <\/em> instead of simply <em> phosph-. <\/em><\/p>\n<p>Many foods and beverages contain citric acid. Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid. Car batteries contain sulfuric acid that helps in the release of electrons to create electricity.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p>Watch a video on naming acids:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm\"> http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Writing Formulas for Acids<\/h3>\n<p>Like other compounds that we have studied, acids are electrically neutral. Therefore, the charge of the anion part of the formula must be exactly balanced out by the H<sup>+ <\/sup> ions. Since\u00a0H<sup>+ <\/sup> ions carry a single negative charge, the number of\u00a0H<sup>+ <\/sup> ions in the formula is equal to the quantity of the negative charge on the anion. Two examples from the table above illustrate this point. The chloride ion carries a 1\u2212 charge, so only one H is needed in the formula of the acid (HCl). The sulfate ion carries a 2\u2212 charge, so two H\u2019s are needed in the formula of the acid (H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub>). Another way to think about writing the correct formula is to utilize the crisscross method, shown below for sulfuric acid.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 195px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM2MDA5NDg4OC03LTM0LUMtSW50Q2gtMDItMDQtMTItU3VsZnVyaWMtQWNpZA..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211333\/20140811155216850697.png\" alt=\"How to write the formula for sulfuric acid\" width=\"185\" height=\"192\" longdesc=\"Criss-cross%20approach%20to%20writing%20formula%20for%20sulfuric%20acid.\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7.\u00a0Criss-cross approach to writing formula for sulfuric acid.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Acids are molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions.<\/li>\n<li>A binary acid consists of hydrogen and one other element.<\/li>\n<li>Oxoacids contain hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element.<\/li>\n<li>The name of the acid is based on the anion attached to the hydrogen.<\/li>\n<li>Writing formulas for acids follows the same rules as for binary ionic compounds.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to answer the following questions:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm\"> http:\/\/www.kentchemistry.com\/links\/naming\/acids.htm <\/a><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>When naming acids, is the hydrogen named?<\/li>\n<li>What prefix is added to the anion root?<\/li>\n<li>What suffix is added to the anion root?<\/li>\n<li>How are oxo acids named?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Define \u201cacid.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>What is a binary acid?<\/li>\n<li>What is an oxoacid?<\/li>\n<li>Name the following acids:\n<ol>\n<li>H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>HCN<\/li>\n<li>HCl<\/li>\n<li>H<sub>3<\/sub>PO<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Write formulas for the following acids:\n<ol>\n<li>hydrobromic acid<\/li>\n<li>perchloric acid<\/li>\n<li>nitrous acid<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>acid:<\/strong> An acid is a molecular compound that contains one or more hydrogen atoms and produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.<\/li>\n<li><strong>binary acid:<\/strong> An acid that consists of hydrogen and one other element.<\/li>\n<li><strong>oxoacid:<\/strong> \u00a0An acid that consists of hydrogen, oxygen, and a third element. \u00a0The third element is usually a nonmetal.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Names and Formulas of Bases<\/h2>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define base.<\/li>\n<li>State rules for naming bases.<\/li>\n<li>Write the name of a base when given the chemical formula.<\/li>\n<li>Write the chemical formula for a base when given the name.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>What different things are these workers doing to make soap?<\/h3>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" title=\"Soap Making\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211333\/20140811155216983934.jpeg\" alt=\"Making soap requires a base, lye\" width=\"400\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Soap making has a long history. Until recently, soap was made using animal fats and lye from wood ashes. The lye served as a base to break down the fats and help form the soap. Needless to say, unless the soap was washed to remove the lye, it was very harsh on the skin. Many families would make their own soap by boiling the lye and fat in a large kettle over an open fire, a long and hot task.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Bases<\/h3>\n<p>The simplest way to define a <strong> base <\/strong> is an ionic compound that produces <strong> hydroxide <\/strong> <strong> ions <\/strong> when dissolved in water. One of the most commonly used bases is sodium hydroxide, illustrated below.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 510px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" id=\"x-ck12-OTgwNDUtMTM2MDA5NTEyNC00Mi04LUMtSW50Q2gtMDItMDQtMTQtU29kaXVtLUh5ZHJveGlkZQ..\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/53\/2014\/08\/19211335\/20140811155217134503.png\" alt=\"Picture and structure of sodium hydroxide\" width=\"500\" height=\"193\" longdesc=\"(A)%20Sodium%20hydroxide%2C%20a%20base%2C%20is%20a%20solid%20that%20is%20typically%20produced%20as%20small%20white%20pellets.%20(B)%20The%20structure%20of%20sodium%20hydroxide%20is%20an%20extended%20three-dimensional%20network.%20The%20purple%20spheres%20are%20the%20sodium%20ions%20(Na%3Csup%3E%2B%3C%2Fsup%3E).%20The%20red%20and%20white%20spheres%20are%20oxygen%20and%20hydrogen%20atoms%20respectively%2C%20which%20are%20bonded%20together%20to%20form%20hydroxide%20ions%20(OH%3Csup%3E%E2%88%92%3C%2Fsup%3E).\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 8.\u00a0(A) Sodium hydroxide, a base, is a solid that is typically produced as small white pellets. (B) The structure of sodium hydroxide is an extended three-dimensional network. The purple spheres are the sodium ions (Na<sup>+<\/sup>). The red and white spheres are oxygen and hydrogen atoms respectively, which are bonded together to form hydroxide ions (OH<sup>\u2212<\/sup>).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Names and Formulas of Bases<\/h3>\n<p>There is no special system for naming bases. Since they all contain the OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> anion, names of bases end in <em> hydroxide<\/em>. The cation is simply named first. Some examples of names and formulas for bases are shown in the <strong> Table <\/strong> below.<\/p>\n<table id=\"x-ck12-ZWFiZDMzNmUyY2FiNGI4NjlmZDRmODFlNDUzNGMyZWM.-49w\" class=\"x-ck12-nofloat\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Formula<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Name<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>NaOH<\/td>\n<td>sodium hydroxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ca(OH)<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>calcium hydroxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>NH<sub>4<\/sub>OH<\/td>\n<td>ammonium hydroxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Notice that because bases are ionic compounds, the number of hydroxides in the formula does not affect the name. The compound must be neutral, so the charges of the ions are balanced just as for other ionic compounds. Sodium ion (Na<sup>+<\/sup>) requires one OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> ion to balance the charge, so the formula is NaOH. Calcium ion (Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>) requires two OH<sup>\u2212 <\/sup> ions to balance the charge, so the formula is Ca(OH)<sub>2<\/sub>. Hydroxide ion is a polyatomic ion and must be put in parentheses when there are more than on in a formula.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Summary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Bases are ionic compounds that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.<\/li>\n<li>The cation is named first followed by \u201chydroxide.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice<\/h3>\n<p>Use the link below to practice naming bases and writing formulas for bases:<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/www.chem.uiuc.edu\/webfunchem\/bases\/nombaseIndex.htm\"> http:\/\/www.chem.uiuc.edu\/webfunchem\/bases\/nombaseIndex.htm<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Review<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>What is a base?<\/li>\n<li>What is the charge on the hydroxide anion?<\/li>\n<li>Name the following bases:\n<ol>\n<li>LiOH<\/li>\n<li>Mg(OH)<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>Fe(OH)<sub>3<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Write the formulas for the following bases:\n<ol>\n<li>nickel (II) hydroxide<\/li>\n<li>aluminum hydroxide<\/li>\n<li>silver hydroxide<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>base:<\/strong> An ionic compound that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water.<\/li>\n<li><strong>hydroxide ion:<\/strong> Has \u00a0one hydrogen atom and one\u00a0oxygen atom.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q836080\">Show References<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q836080\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<h2>References<\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li>J. S. Bach. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bach_cello_harmony.JPG\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bach_cello_harmony.JPG <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>CK-12 Foundation &#8211; Joy Sheng. .<\/li>\n<li>User:Calvero\/Wikimedia Commons. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sucrose.svg\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sucrose.svg <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Madame Lavoisier. Lavoisier Sketch .<\/li>\n<li>Original uploader was Gold Guru at en.wikipedia. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nugsrandt.jpg\"> Gold Nuggets <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Erik Dunmire. marin.edu .<\/li>\n<li>Christopher Auyeung. CK-12 .<\/li>\n<li>Courtesy of Shane Anderson\/NOAA. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kelp_300.jpg\"> Seaweed <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>CK-12 Foundation &#8211; Christopher Auyeung. Periodic Table.<\/li>\n<li>Courtesy of the US Mint. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Platinum_eagle101.jpg\"> Platinum Eagle <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Cepheus, modified by CK-12 Foundation. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Periodic_table.svg\"> Periodic Table <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Carl Gustav Calwer, Gustav J\u00e4ger, Emil Hochdanz. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anoplodera.scutellata.-.calwer.41.16.jpg\"> Insect <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>XAVeRY. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:S1_mp3_player_example-edit.png\"> MP3 Player <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Ond\u0159ej Mangl . Copper(I) oxide: http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cu2O.png; Copper(II) oxide: http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Oxid_m%C4%9B%C4%8Fnat%C3%BD.PNG .<\/li>\n<li>Winifred Kenna. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gregg_shorthand_A_Christmas_Carol.jpg\"> Shorthand <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>CK-12 Foundation &#8211; Joy Sheng. Al2O3 Cross.<\/li>\n<li>CK-12 Foundation &#8211; Joy Sheng. PbO2 Cross.<\/li>\n<li>Huhu. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bella_Rosa_%28Kordes_1981%29.JPG\"> Bella Rosa <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ammonium-3D-balls.png\"> Ammonium <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hydroxide-3D-vdW.png\"> Hydroxide <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carbonate-3D-balls.png\"> Carbonate <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Jon Sullivan. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pepperoni_pizza.jpg\"> Pizza <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>CK-12 Foundation &#8211; Joy Sheng. Ca(NO3)2 Cross .<\/li>\n<li>Anonymous. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Eduard1_biskupove.jpg\"> Edward I <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27). <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.png\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.png <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>User:Greenhorn1\/Wikimedia Commons. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nitrogendioxide.jpg\"> http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nitrogendioxide.jpg <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>Image copyright Zenphotography, 2014. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.shutterstock.com\"> Gold <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>(A) Becky Cortino; (B) Flickr: isox4. (A) http:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/mediasavvy\/8239231530\/; (B) http:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/isox4\/5167980026\/ .<\/li>\n<li>CK-12 Foundation &#8211; Joy Sheng. .<\/li>\n<li>Unknown. <a href=\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Zeepzieden.jpg\"> Soap Making <\/a> .<\/li>\n<li>(A) Martin Walker (Wikimedia: Walkerma); (B) Ben Mills (Wikimedia: Benjah-bmm27) . (A) http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:SodiumHydroxide.jpg; (B) http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sodium-hydroxide-crystal-3D-vdW.png .<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-461\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Chemistry Concepts Intermediate. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Calbreath, Baxter, et al.. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CK12.org. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/book\/CK-12-Chemistry-Concepts-Intermediate\/\">http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/book\/CK-12-Chemistry-Concepts-Intermediate\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":1507,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Chemistry Concepts Intermediate\",\"author\":\"Calbreath, Baxter, et al.\",\"organization\":\"CK12.org\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/book\/CK-12-Chemistry-Concepts-Intermediate\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-461","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":2328,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/461","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1507"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/461\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3678,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/461\/revisions\/3678"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/2328"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/461\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=461"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=461"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=461"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/umes-cheminter\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=461"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}