{"id":587,"date":"2016-05-27T14:49:14","date_gmt":"2016-05-27T14:49:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-level2-english\/?post_type=chapter&p=587"},"modified":"2016-07-25T14:17:16","modified_gmt":"2016-07-25T14:17:16","slug":"text-applying-evidence","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-level2-english\/chapter\/text-applying-evidence\/","title":{"raw":"Text: Applying Evidence","rendered":"Text: Applying Evidence"},"content":{"raw":"The \"Evidence\" handout from The Writing Center at\u00a0UNC-Chapel Hill continues, offering guidance for how to select, refine, and apply evidence once you've located it.\r\n
\r\n

USING EVIDENCE IN AN ARGUMENT<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\r\n

Does evidence speak for itself?<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for<\/i> or against<\/i> something, and you have to make that link clear.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can\u2019t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don\u2019t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. O.k., I\u2019ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  2. What does this information imply?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  3. What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  4. I\u2019ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  5. I\u2019ve just said that something happens-so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Why is this information important? Why does it matter?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  7. How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
  8. Can I give an example to illustrate this point?<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

    Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

    HOW CAN I INCORPORATE EVIDENCE INTO MY PAPER?<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\r\n

    There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

    Quotations<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

    When you quote, you are reproducing another writer\u2019s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n \t
    1. Quote if you can\u2019t say it any better and the author\u2019s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you\u2019re making, or otherwise interesting.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    2. Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author\u2019s expertise to back up your point.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer\u2019s use of a specific word or phrase.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
    4. Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader\u2019s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

      Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations<\/span><\/a> for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

      Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can\u2019t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It\u2019s important to avoid \u201cplop quotations,\u201d that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

      Paraphrasing<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

      When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn\u2019t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author\u2019s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You\u2019ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else\u2019s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

      When might you want to paraphrase?<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        \r\n \t
      1. Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer\u2019s position, but his or her original words aren\u2019t special enough to quote.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      2. Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point\u2014for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      3. Paraphrase when you want to present a writer\u2019s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer\u2019s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      4. Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t
      5. Paraphrase when you need to present information that\u2019s unlikely to be questioned.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

        Summary<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

        When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don\u2019t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else\u2019s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

        Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want him or her to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn\u2019t produce the material you are using yourself.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        DO I NEED MORE EVIDENCE?<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\r\n

        Let\u2019s say that you\u2019ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you\u2019ve got enough evidence and whether it\u2019s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        Make a reverse outline<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

        A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

        For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization<\/span><\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        Color code your paper<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

        You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        Play devil\u2019s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\r\n

        This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to him\/her. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil\u2019s advocate, he or she will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, he or she will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, he or she won\u2019t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven\u2019t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.<\/span>\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

        The “Evidence” handout from The Writing Center at\u00a0UNC-Chapel Hill continues, offering guidance for how to select, refine, and apply evidence once you’ve located it.<\/p>\n

        \n

        USING EVIDENCE IN AN ARGUMENT<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n

        Does evidence speak for itself?<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

        Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for<\/i> or against<\/i> something, and you have to make that link clear.<\/span><\/p>\n

        As writers, we sometimes assume that our readers already know what we are talking about; we may be wary of elaborating too much because we think the point is obvious. But readers can\u2019t read our minds: although they may be familiar with many of the ideas we are discussing, they don\u2019t know what we are trying to do with those ideas unless we indicate it through explanations, organization, transitions, and so forth. Try to spell out the connections that you were making in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper, and drew conclusions based on it. Remember, you can always cut prose from your paper later if you decide that you are stating the obvious.<\/span><\/p>\n

        Here are some questions you can ask yourself about a particular bit of evidence:<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n
          \n
        1. O.k., I\u2019ve just stated this point, but so what? Why is it interesting? Why should anyone care?<\/span><\/li>\n
        2. What does this information imply?<\/span><\/li>\n
        3. What are the consequences of thinking this way or looking at a problem this way?<\/span><\/li>\n
        4. I\u2019ve just described what something is like or how I see it, but why is it like that?<\/span><\/li>\n
        5. I\u2019ve just said that something happens-so how does it happen? How does it come to be the way it is?<\/span><\/li>\n
        6. Why is this information important? Why does it matter?<\/span><\/li>\n
        7. How is this idea related to my thesis? What connections exist between them? Does it support my thesis? If so, how does it do that?<\/span><\/li>\n
        8. Can I give an example to illustrate this point?<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          Answering these questions may help you explain how your evidence is related to your overall argument.<\/span><\/p>\n

          HOW CAN I INCORPORATE EVIDENCE INTO MY PAPER?<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n

          There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.<\/span><\/p>\n

          Quotations<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

          When you quote, you are reproducing another writer\u2019s words exactly as they appear on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotations:<\/span><\/p>\n

            \n
          1. Quote if you can\u2019t say it any better and the author\u2019s words are particularly brilliant, witty, edgy, distinctive, a good illustration of a point you\u2019re making, or otherwise interesting.<\/span><\/li>\n
          2. Quote if you are using a particularly authoritative source and you need the author\u2019s expertise to back up your point.<\/span><\/li>\n
          3. Quote if you are analyzing diction, tone, or a writer\u2019s use of a specific word or phrase.<\/span><\/li>\n
          4. Quote if you are taking a position that relies on the reader\u2019s understanding exactly what another writer says about the topic.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            Be sure to introduce each quotation you use, and always cite your sources. See our handout on quotations<\/span><\/a> for more details on when to quote and how to format quotations.<\/span><\/p>\n

            Like all pieces of evidence, a quotation can\u2019t speak for itself. If you end a paragraph with a quotation, that may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in terms of your argument. It\u2019s important to avoid \u201cplop quotations,\u201d that is, quotations that are just dropped into your paper without any introduction, discussion, or follow-up.<\/span><\/p>\n

            Paraphrasing<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

            When you paraphrase, you take a specific section of a text and put it into your own words. Putting it into your own words doesn\u2019t mean just changing or rearranging a few of the author\u2019s words: to paraphrase well and avoid plagiarism, try setting your source aside and restating the sentence or paragraph you have just read, as though you were describing it to another person. Paraphrasing is different than summary because a paraphrase focuses on a particular, fairly short bit of text (like a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You\u2019ll need to indicate when you are paraphrasing someone else\u2019s text by citing your source correctly, just as you would with a quotation.<\/span><\/p>\n

            When might you want to paraphrase?<\/span><\/p>\n

              \n
            1. Paraphrase when you want to introduce a writer\u2019s position, but his or her original words aren\u2019t special enough to quote.<\/span><\/li>\n
            2. Paraphrase when you are supporting a particular point and need to draw on a certain place in a text that supports your point\u2014for example, when one paragraph in a source is especially relevant.<\/span><\/li>\n
            3. Paraphrase when you want to present a writer\u2019s view on a topic that differs from your position or that of another writer; you can then refute writer\u2019s specific points in your own words after you paraphrase.<\/span><\/li>\n
            4. Paraphrase when you want to comment on a particular example that another writer uses.<\/span><\/li>\n
            5. Paraphrase when you need to present information that\u2019s unlikely to be questioned.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              Summary<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

              When you summarize, you are offering an overview of an entire text, or at least a lengthy section of a text. Summary is useful when you are providing background information, grounding your own argument, or mentioning a source as a counter-argument. A summary is less nuanced than paraphrased material. It can be the most effective way to incorporate a large number of sources when you don\u2019t have a lot of space. When you are summarizing someone else\u2019s argument or ideas, be sure this is clear to the reader and cite your source appropriately.<\/span><\/p>\n

              Statistics, data, charts, graphs, photographs, illustrations<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

              Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is a hard fact or visual representation of a fact. This type of evidence can be a solid backbone for your argument, but you still need to create context for your reader and draw the connections you want him or her to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graph, photographs, and illustrations are all open to interpretation. Guide the reader through the interpretation process. Again, always, cite the origin of your evidence if you didn\u2019t produce the material you are using yourself.<\/span><\/p>\n

              DO I NEED MORE EVIDENCE?<\/b><\/span><\/h2>\n

              Let\u2019s say that you\u2019ve identified some appropriate sources, found some evidence, explained to the reader how it fits into your overall argument, incorporated it into your draft effectively, and cited your sources. How do you tell whether you\u2019ve got enough evidence and whether it\u2019s working well in the service of a strong argument or analysis? Here are some techniques you can use to review your draft and assess your use of evidence.<\/span><\/p>\n

              Make a reverse outline<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

              A reverse outline is a great technique for helping you see how each paragraph contributes to proving your thesis. When you make a reverse outline, you record the main ideas in each paragraph in a shorter (outline-like) form so that you can see at a glance what is in your paper. The reverse outline is helpful in at least three ways. First, it lets you see where you have dealt with too many topics in one paragraph (in general, you should have one main idea per paragraph). Second, the reverse outline can help you see where you need more evidence to prove your point or more analysis of that evidence. Third, the reverse outline can help you write your topic sentences: once you have decided what you want each paragraph to be about, you can write topic sentences that explain the topics of the paragraphs and state the relationship of each topic to the overall thesis of the paper.<\/span><\/p>\n

              For tips on making a reverse outline, see our handout on organization<\/span><\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

              Color code your paper<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

              You will need three highlighters or colored pencils for this exercise. Use one color to highlight general assertions. These will typically be the topic sentences in your paper. Next, use another color to highlight the specific evidence you provide for each assertion (including quotations, paraphrased or summarized material, statistics, examples, and your own ideas). Lastly, use another color to highlight analysis of your evidence. Which assertions are key to your overall argument? Which ones are especially contestable? How much evidence do you have for each assertion? How much analysis? In general, you should have at least as much analysis as you do evidence, or your paper runs the risk of being more summary than argument. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence you may need to provide in order to persuade your reader.<\/span><\/p>\n

              Play devil\u2019s advocate, act like a child, or doubt everything<\/b><\/span><\/h3>\n

              This technique may be easiest to use with a partner. Ask your friend to take on one of the roles above, then read your paper aloud to him\/her. After each section, pause and let your friend interrogate you. If your friend is playing devil\u2019s advocate, he or she will always take the opposing viewpoint and force you to keep defending yourself. If your friend is acting like a child, he or she will question every sentence, even seemingly self-explanatory ones. If your friend is a doubter, he or she won\u2019t believe anything you say. Justifying your position verbally or explaining yourself will force you to strengthen the evidence in your paper. If you already have enough evidence but haven\u2019t connected it clearly enough to your main argument, explaining to your friend how the evidence is relevant or what it proves may help you to do so.<\/span>\u00a0<\/b><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t

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              CC licensed content, Original<\/div>