{"id":191,"date":"2015-02-06T23:15:46","date_gmt":"2015-02-06T23:15:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ospsych\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=191"},"modified":"2024-05-17T02:44:01","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T02:44:01","slug":"operant-conditioning","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/operant-conditioning\/","title":{"raw":"Reinforcement and Punishment","rendered":"Reinforcement and Punishment"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment (including positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define shaping<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday words\u2014positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment\u2014in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, <em data-effect=\"italics\">positive<\/em> means you are adding something, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">negative<\/em> means you are taking something away. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Reinforcement<\/em> means you are increasing a behavior, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">punishment<\/em> means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) <em data-effect=\"italics\">increase<\/em> the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) <em data-effect=\"italics\">decrease<\/em> the likelihood of a behavioral response. Now let\u2019s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment (Table 1).\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<table class=\" undefined\"><caption>Table 1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment<\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th aria-label=\"no value\"><\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\"><strong>Reinforcement<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\"><strong>Punishment<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"row\"><strong>Positive<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">added<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">increase<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\r\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">added<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">decrease<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"row\"><strong>Negative<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">removed<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">increase<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\r\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">removed<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">decrease<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Reinforcement<\/h2>\r\nThe most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement. In <strong>positive reinforcement<\/strong>, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior.\r\n\r\nFor example, you tell your five-year-old son, Jerome, that if he cleans his room, he will get a toy. Jerome quickly cleans his room because he wants a new art set. Let\u2019s pause for a moment. Some people might say, \u201cWhy should I reward my child for doing what is expected?\u201d But in fact we are constantly and consistently rewarded in our lives. Our paychecks are rewards, as are high grades and acceptance into our preferred school. Being praised for doing a good job and for passing a driver\u2019s test is also a reward. Positive reinforcement as a learning tool is extremely effective. It has been found that one of the most effective ways to increase achievement in school districts with below-average reading scores was to pay the children to read. Specifically, second-grade students in Dallas were paid $2 each time they read a book and passed a short quiz about the book. The result was a significant increase in reading comprehension (Fryer, 2010). What do you think about this program? If Skinner were alive today, he would probably think this was a great idea. He was a strong proponent of using operant conditioning principles to influence students\u2019 behavior at school. In fact, in addition to the Skinner box, he also invented what he called a teaching machine that was designed to reward small steps in learning (Skinner, 1961)\u2014an early forerunner of computer-assisted learning. His teaching machine tested students\u2019 knowledge as they worked through various school subjects. If students answered questions correctly, they received immediate positive reinforcement and could continue; if they answered incorrectly, they did not receive any reinforcement. The idea was that students would spend additional time studying the material to increase their chance of being reinforced the next time (Skinner, 1961).\r\n\r\nIn <strong>negative reinforcement<\/strong>, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go \u201cbeep, beep, beep\u201d until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future. Negative reinforcement is also used frequently in horse training. Riders apply pressure\u2014by pulling the reins or squeezing their legs\u2014and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired behavior, such as turning or speeding up. The pressure is the negative stimulus that the horse wants to remove.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=LhI5h5JZi-U\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">clip from <em>The Big Bang Theory<\/em><\/a> to see Sheldon Cooper explain the commonly confused terms of negative reinforcement and punishment.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Punishment<\/h2>\r\nMany people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant conditioning, but they are two very different mechanisms. Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a behavior. In contrast, <strong>punishment<\/strong> always decreases a behavior. In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of <strong>positive punishment<\/strong> is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class). In <strong>negative punishment<\/strong>, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.\r\n\r\nPunishment, especially when it is immediate, is one way to decrease undesirable behavior. For example, imagine your four year-old son, Brandon, hit his younger brother. You have Brandon write 50\u00a0times \u201cI will not hit my brother\" (positive punishment). Chances are he won\u2019t repeat this behavior. While strategies like this are common today, in the past children were often subject to physical punishment, such as spanking. It\u2019s important to be aware of some of the drawbacks in using physical punishment on children. First, punishment may teach fear. Brandon may become fearful of the hitting, but he also may become fearful of the person who delivered the punishment\u2014you, his parent. Similarly, children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the teacher and try to avoid school (Gershoff et al., 2010). Consequently, most schools in the United States have banned corporal punishment. Second, punishment may cause children to become more aggressive and prone to antisocial behavior and delinquency (Gershoff, 2002). They see their parents resort to spanking when they become angry and frustrated, so, in turn, they may act out this same behavior when they become angry and frustrated. For example, because you spank Margot\u00a0when you are angry with her for her misbehavior, she might start hitting her friends when they won\u2019t share their toys.\r\n\r\nWhile positive punishment can be effective in some cases, Skinner suggested that the use of punishment should be weighed against the possible negative effects. Today\u2019s psychologists and parenting experts favor reinforcement over punishment\u2014they recommend that you catch your child doing something good and reward them for it.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nMake sure you understand the distinction\u00a0between negative reinforcement and punishment in the following video:\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793458&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=imkbuKomPXI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-199j2mcc-imkbuKomPXI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/LearningNegativeReinforcementvsPunishment.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\nStill confused? Watch the following short clip for another example and explanation of positive and negative reinforcement as well as positive and negative punishment.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793459&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=LSHJbIJK9TI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-yyow643i-LSHJbIJK9TI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/OperantConditioningRutherford.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Operant Conditioning\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f6f6ec8a-b84b-40b0-bdfd-b3441440126a\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/41e72670-eaea-4637-a81f-26183c967f70\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/cf9e3883-ec3b-4d27-9f57-457c6636ce9f\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/fe81fd0b-3fb8-49db-a7e9-f6337a91d268\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5d94bfe7-cd6d-421a-8da6-60ee2be29e03\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/42b1504b-718f-41bf-948d-9af92b29cefc\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Shaping<\/h2>\r\nIn his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach called shaping. Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in <strong>shaping<\/strong>, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior. Why is shaping needed? Remember that in order for reinforcement to work, the organism must first display the behavior. Shaping is needed because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously. In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. The specific steps used in the process are the following: Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.\r\n\r\nShaping is often used in teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors. Skinner used shaping to teach pigeons not only such relatively simple behaviors as pecking a disk in a Skinner box, but also many unusual and entertaining behaviors, such as turning in circles, walking in figure eights, and even playing ping pong; the technique is commonly used by animal trainers today. An important part of shaping is stimulus discrimination. Recall Pavlov\u2019s dogs\u2014he trained them to respond to the tone of a bell, and not to similar tones or sounds. This discrimination is also important in operant conditioning and in shaping behavior.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n\r\nHere is a brief video of Skinner\u2019s pigeons playing ping pong.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793462&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=vGazyH6fQQ4&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-93dm31ev-vGazyH6fQQ4\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/BFSkinnerFoundationPigeonPingPongClip.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"BF Skinner Foundation - Pigeon Ping Pong Clip\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIt\u2019s easy to see how shaping is effective in teaching behaviors to animals, but how does shaping work with humans? Let\u2019s consider parents whose goal is to have their child learn to clean his room. They use shaping to help him master steps toward the goal. Instead of performing the entire task, they set up these steps and reinforce each step. First, he cleans up one toy. Second, he cleans up five toys. Third, he chooses whether to pick up ten toys or put his books and clothes away. Fourth, he cleans up everything except two toys. Finally, he cleans his entire room.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/d810b171-fa3d-4e12-b0e9-41dd28e501bf\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a9b1c801-9954-48aa-a1bc-a2bfca581cc0\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Primary and Secondary Reinforcers<\/h2>\r\nRewards such as stickers, praise, money, toys, and more can be used to reinforce learning. Let\u2019s go back to Skinner\u2019s rats again. How did the rats learn to press the lever in the Skinner box? They were rewarded with food each time they pressed the lever. For animals, food would be an obvious reinforcer.\r\n\r\nWhat would be a good reinforce for humans? For your daughter Sydney, it was the promise of a toy if she cleaned her room. How about Joaquin, the soccer player? If you gave Joaquin a piece of candy every time he made a goal, you would be using a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are <strong>primary reinforcers<\/strong>. Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms do not lose their drive for these things. For most people, jumping in a cool lake on a very hot day would be reinforcing and the cool lake would be innately reinforcing\u2014the water would cool the person off (a physical need), as well as provide pleasure.\r\n\r\nA <strong>secondary reinforcer<\/strong> has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out \u201cGreat shot!\u201d every time Joaquin made a goal. Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things\u2014either things that satisfy basic needs (food, water, shelter\u2014all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers. If you were on a remote island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and you had stacks of money, the money would not be useful if you could not spend it. What about the stickers on the behavior chart? They also are secondary reinforcers.\r\n\r\nSometimes, instead of stickers on a sticker chart, a token is used. Tokens, which are also secondary reinforcers, can then be traded in for rewards and prizes. Entire behavior management systems, known as token economies, are built around the use of these kinds of token reinforcers. Token economies have been found to be very effective at modifying behavior in a variety of settings such as schools, prisons, and mental hospitals. For example, a study by Cangi and Daly (2013) found that use of a token economy increased appropriate social behaviors and reduced inappropriate behaviors in a group of autistic school children. Autistic children tend to exhibit disruptive behaviors such as pinching and hitting. When the children in the study exhibited appropriate behavior (not hitting or pinching), they received a \u201cquiet hands\u201d token. When they hit or pinched, they lost a token. The children could then exchange specified amounts of tokens for minutes of playtime.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Everyday Connection: Behavior Modification in Children<\/h3>\r\nParents and teachers often use behavior modification to change a child\u2019s behavior. Behavior modification uses the principles of operant conditioning to accomplish behavior change so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more socially acceptable ones. Some teachers and parents create a sticker chart, in which several behaviors are listed (Figure 1). Sticker charts are a form of token economies, as described in the text. Each time children perform the behavior, they get a sticker, and after a certain number of stickers, they get a prize, or reinforcer. The goal is to increase acceptable behaviors and decrease misbehavior. Remember, it is best to reinforce desired behaviors, rather than to use punishment. In the classroom, the teacher can reinforce a wide range of behaviors, from students raising their hands, to walking quietly in the hall, to turning in their homework. At home, parents might create a behavior chart that rewards children for things such as putting away toys, brushing their teeth, and helping with dinner. In order for behavior modification to be effective, the reinforcement needs to be connected with the behavior; the reinforcement must matter to the child and be done consistently.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"488\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224805\/CNX_Psych_06_03_Stickers.jpg\" alt=\"A child placing stickers on a chart hanging on her wall.\" width=\"488\" height=\"325\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for behavior modification. Once this little girl earns a certain number of stickers for demonstrating a desired behavior, she will be rewarded with a trip to the ice cream parlor. (credit: Abigail Batchelder)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nTime-out is another popular technique used in behavior modification with children. It operates on the principle of negative punishment. When a child demonstrates an undesirable behavior, she is removed from the desirable activity at hand (Figure 2). For example, say that Sophia and her brother Mario are playing with building blocks. Sophia throws some blocks at her brother, so you give her a warning that she will go to time-out if she does it again. A few minutes later, she throws more blocks at Mario. You remove Sophia from the room for a few minutes. When she comes back, she doesn\u2019t throw blocks.\r\n\r\nThere are several important points that you should know if you plan to implement time-out as a behavior modification technique. First, make sure the child is being removed from a desirable activity and placed in a less desirable location. If the activity is something undesirable for the child, this technique will backfire because it is more enjoyable for the child to be removed from the activity. Second, the length of the time-out is important. The general rule of thumb is one minute for each year of the child\u2019s age. Sophia is five; therefore, she sits in a time-out for five minutes. Setting a timer helps children know how long they have to sit in time-out. Finally, as a caregiver, keep several guidelines in mind over the course of a time-out: remain calm when directing your child to time-out; ignore your child during time-out (because caregiver attention may reinforce misbehavior); and give the child a hug or a kind word when time-out is over.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6779\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"632\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/30164136\/fc182656d0d3fddaaab2525040fa4dc752ba1249.jpeg\"><img class=\" wp-image-6779\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/30164136\/fc182656d0d3fddaaab2525040fa4dc752ba1249-300x151.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph A shows several children climbing on playground equipment. Photograph B shows a child sitting alone on a bench.\" width=\"632\" height=\"318\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Time-out is a popular form of negative punishment used by caregivers. When a child misbehaves, they are removed from a desirable activity in an effort to decrease the unwanted behavior. For example, (a) a child might be playing on the playground with friends and push another child; (b) the child who misbehaved would then be removed from the activity for a short period of time. (credit a: modification of work by Simone Ramella; credit b: modification of work by \u201cSpring Dew\u201d\/Flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/54aff322-ef6d-4f0e-96ba-de5df841887e\r\n\r\nReview operant conditioning and the differences between reinforcement and punishment in the following interactive:\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291014309024075518\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div data-type=\"solution\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your own experiences.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Think of a behavior that you have that you would like to change. How could you use behavior modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to change your behavior? What is your positive reinforcer?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>negative punishment:\u00a0<\/strong>taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>negative reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>positive punishment:\u00a0<\/strong>adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>positive reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>primary reinforcer:\u00a0<\/strong>has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>punishment:\u00a0<\/strong>implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secondary reinforcer:\u00a0<\/strong>has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>shaping:\u00a0<\/strong>rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment (including positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment)<\/li>\n<li>Define shaping<\/li>\n<li>Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>In discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday words\u2014positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment\u2014in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, <em data-effect=\"italics\">positive<\/em> means you are adding something, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">negative<\/em> means you are taking something away. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Reinforcement<\/em> means you are increasing a behavior, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">punishment<\/em> means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) <em data-effect=\"italics\">increase<\/em> the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) <em data-effect=\"italics\">decrease<\/em> the likelihood of a behavioral response. Now let\u2019s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment (Table 1).<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<table class=\"undefined\">\n<caption>Table 1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th aria-label=\"no value\"><\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\"><strong>Reinforcement<\/strong><\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\"><strong>Punishment<\/strong><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"row\"><strong>Positive<\/strong><\/th>\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">added<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">increase<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">added<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">decrease<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"row\"><strong>Negative<\/strong><\/th>\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">removed<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">increase<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\n<td>Something is <em data-effect=\"italics\">removed<\/em> to <em data-effect=\"italics\">decrease<\/em> the likelihood of a behavior.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Reinforcement<\/h2>\n<p>The most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behavior is with positive reinforcement. In <strong>positive reinforcement<\/strong>, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior.<\/p>\n<p>For example, you tell your five-year-old son, Jerome, that if he cleans his room, he will get a toy. Jerome quickly cleans his room because he wants a new art set. Let\u2019s pause for a moment. Some people might say, \u201cWhy should I reward my child for doing what is expected?\u201d But in fact we are constantly and consistently rewarded in our lives. Our paychecks are rewards, as are high grades and acceptance into our preferred school. Being praised for doing a good job and for passing a driver\u2019s test is also a reward. Positive reinforcement as a learning tool is extremely effective. It has been found that one of the most effective ways to increase achievement in school districts with below-average reading scores was to pay the children to read. Specifically, second-grade students in Dallas were paid $2 each time they read a book and passed a short quiz about the book. The result was a significant increase in reading comprehension (Fryer, 2010). What do you think about this program? If Skinner were alive today, he would probably think this was a great idea. He was a strong proponent of using operant conditioning principles to influence students\u2019 behavior at school. In fact, in addition to the Skinner box, he also invented what he called a teaching machine that was designed to reward small steps in learning (Skinner, 1961)\u2014an early forerunner of computer-assisted learning. His teaching machine tested students\u2019 knowledge as they worked through various school subjects. If students answered questions correctly, they received immediate positive reinforcement and could continue; if they answered incorrectly, they did not receive any reinforcement. The idea was that students would spend additional time studying the material to increase their chance of being reinforced the next time (Skinner, 1961).<\/p>\n<p>In <strong>negative reinforcement<\/strong>, an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go \u201cbeep, beep, beep\u201d until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future. Negative reinforcement is also used frequently in horse training. Riders apply pressure\u2014by pulling the reins or squeezing their legs\u2014and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired behavior, such as turning or speeding up. The pressure is the negative stimulus that the horse wants to remove.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=LhI5h5JZi-U\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">clip from <em>The Big Bang Theory<\/em><\/a> to see Sheldon Cooper explain the commonly confused terms of negative reinforcement and punishment.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Punishment<\/h2>\n<p>Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant conditioning, but they are two very different mechanisms. Remember that reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a behavior. In contrast, <strong>punishment<\/strong> always decreases a behavior. In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. An example of <strong>positive punishment<\/strong> is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class). In <strong>negative punishment<\/strong>, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.<\/p>\n<p>Punishment, especially when it is immediate, is one way to decrease undesirable behavior. For example, imagine your four year-old son, Brandon, hit his younger brother. You have Brandon write 50\u00a0times \u201cI will not hit my brother&#8221; (positive punishment). Chances are he won\u2019t repeat this behavior. While strategies like this are common today, in the past children were often subject to physical punishment, such as spanking. It\u2019s important to be aware of some of the drawbacks in using physical punishment on children. First, punishment may teach fear. Brandon may become fearful of the hitting, but he also may become fearful of the person who delivered the punishment\u2014you, his parent. Similarly, children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the teacher and try to avoid school (Gershoff et al., 2010). Consequently, most schools in the United States have banned corporal punishment. Second, punishment may cause children to become more aggressive and prone to antisocial behavior and delinquency (Gershoff, 2002). They see their parents resort to spanking when they become angry and frustrated, so, in turn, they may act out this same behavior when they become angry and frustrated. For example, because you spank Margot\u00a0when you are angry with her for her misbehavior, she might start hitting her friends when they won\u2019t share their toys.<\/p>\n<p>While positive punishment can be effective in some cases, Skinner suggested that the use of punishment should be weighed against the possible negative effects. Today\u2019s psychologists and parenting experts favor reinforcement over punishment\u2014they recommend that you catch your child doing something good and reward them for it.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Make sure you understand the distinction\u00a0between negative reinforcement and punishment in the following video:<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793458&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=imkbuKomPXI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-199j2mcc-imkbuKomPXI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/LearningNegativeReinforcementvsPunishment.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Still confused? Watch the following short clip for another example and explanation of positive and negative reinforcement as well as positive and negative punishment.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793459&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=LSHJbIJK9TI&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-yyow643i-LSHJbIJK9TI\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/OperantConditioningRutherford.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Operant Conditioning&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_f6f6ec8a-b84b-40b0-bdfd-b3441440126a\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f6f6ec8a-b84b-40b0-bdfd-b3441440126a?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_f6f6ec8a-b84b-40b0-bdfd-b3441440126a\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_41e72670-eaea-4637-a81f-26183c967f70\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/41e72670-eaea-4637-a81f-26183c967f70?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_41e72670-eaea-4637-a81f-26183c967f70\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_cf9e3883-ec3b-4d27-9f57-457c6636ce9f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/cf9e3883-ec3b-4d27-9f57-457c6636ce9f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_cf9e3883-ec3b-4d27-9f57-457c6636ce9f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_fe81fd0b-3fb8-49db-a7e9-f6337a91d268\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/fe81fd0b-3fb8-49db-a7e9-f6337a91d268?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_fe81fd0b-3fb8-49db-a7e9-f6337a91d268\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_5d94bfe7-cd6d-421a-8da6-60ee2be29e03\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5d94bfe7-cd6d-421a-8da6-60ee2be29e03?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_5d94bfe7-cd6d-421a-8da6-60ee2be29e03\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_42b1504b-718f-41bf-948d-9af92b29cefc\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/42b1504b-718f-41bf-948d-9af92b29cefc?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_42b1504b-718f-41bf-948d-9af92b29cefc\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Shaping<\/h2>\n<p>In his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach called shaping. Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in <strong>shaping<\/strong>, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior. Why is shaping needed? Remember that in order for reinforcement to work, the organism must first display the behavior. Shaping is needed because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest of behaviors spontaneously. In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. The specific steps used in the process are the following: Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.<\/p>\n<p>Shaping is often used in teaching a complex behavior or chain of behaviors. Skinner used shaping to teach pigeons not only such relatively simple behaviors as pecking a disk in a Skinner box, but also many unusual and entertaining behaviors, such as turning in circles, walking in figure eights, and even playing ping pong; the technique is commonly used by animal trainers today. An important part of shaping is stimulus discrimination. Recall Pavlov\u2019s dogs\u2014he trained them to respond to the tone of a bell, and not to similar tones or sounds. This discrimination is also important in operant conditioning and in shaping behavior.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>WAtch It<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<p>Here is a brief video of Skinner\u2019s pigeons playing ping pong.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793462&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=vGazyH6fQQ4&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-93dm31ev-vGazyH6fQQ4\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/BFSkinnerFoundationPigeonPingPongClip.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;BF Skinner Foundation &#8211; Pigeon Ping Pong Clip&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>It\u2019s easy to see how shaping is effective in teaching behaviors to animals, but how does shaping work with humans? Let\u2019s consider parents whose goal is to have their child learn to clean his room. They use shaping to help him master steps toward the goal. Instead of performing the entire task, they set up these steps and reinforce each step. First, he cleans up one toy. Second, he cleans up five toys. Third, he chooses whether to pick up ten toys or put his books and clothes away. Fourth, he cleans up everything except two toys. Finally, he cleans his entire room.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_d810b171-fa3d-4e12-b0e9-41dd28e501bf\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/d810b171-fa3d-4e12-b0e9-41dd28e501bf?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_d810b171-fa3d-4e12-b0e9-41dd28e501bf\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a9b1c801-9954-48aa-a1bc-a2bfca581cc0\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a9b1c801-9954-48aa-a1bc-a2bfca581cc0?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a9b1c801-9954-48aa-a1bc-a2bfca581cc0\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Primary and Secondary Reinforcers<\/h2>\n<p>Rewards such as stickers, praise, money, toys, and more can be used to reinforce learning. Let\u2019s go back to Skinner\u2019s rats again. How did the rats learn to press the lever in the Skinner box? They were rewarded with food each time they pressed the lever. For animals, food would be an obvious reinforcer.<\/p>\n<p>What would be a good reinforce for humans? For your daughter Sydney, it was the promise of a toy if she cleaned her room. How about Joaquin, the soccer player? If you gave Joaquin a piece of candy every time he made a goal, you would be using a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are <strong>primary reinforcers<\/strong>. Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms do not lose their drive for these things. For most people, jumping in a cool lake on a very hot day would be reinforcing and the cool lake would be innately reinforcing\u2014the water would cool the person off (a physical need), as well as provide pleasure.<\/p>\n<p>A <strong>secondary reinforcer<\/strong> has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out \u201cGreat shot!\u201d every time Joaquin made a goal. Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use it to buy other things\u2014either things that satisfy basic needs (food, water, shelter\u2014all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers. If you were on a remote island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and you had stacks of money, the money would not be useful if you could not spend it. What about the stickers on the behavior chart? They also are secondary reinforcers.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes, instead of stickers on a sticker chart, a token is used. Tokens, which are also secondary reinforcers, can then be traded in for rewards and prizes. Entire behavior management systems, known as token economies, are built around the use of these kinds of token reinforcers. Token economies have been found to be very effective at modifying behavior in a variety of settings such as schools, prisons, and mental hospitals. For example, a study by Cangi and Daly (2013) found that use of a token economy increased appropriate social behaviors and reduced inappropriate behaviors in a group of autistic school children. Autistic children tend to exhibit disruptive behaviors such as pinching and hitting. When the children in the study exhibited appropriate behavior (not hitting or pinching), they received a \u201cquiet hands\u201d token. When they hit or pinched, they lost a token. The children could then exchange specified amounts of tokens for minutes of playtime.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Everyday Connection: Behavior Modification in Children<\/h3>\n<p>Parents and teachers often use behavior modification to change a child\u2019s behavior. Behavior modification uses the principles of operant conditioning to accomplish behavior change so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more socially acceptable ones. Some teachers and parents create a sticker chart, in which several behaviors are listed (Figure 1). Sticker charts are a form of token economies, as described in the text. Each time children perform the behavior, they get a sticker, and after a certain number of stickers, they get a prize, or reinforcer. The goal is to increase acceptable behaviors and decrease misbehavior. Remember, it is best to reinforce desired behaviors, rather than to use punishment. In the classroom, the teacher can reinforce a wide range of behaviors, from students raising their hands, to walking quietly in the hall, to turning in their homework. At home, parents might create a behavior chart that rewards children for things such as putting away toys, brushing their teeth, and helping with dinner. In order for behavior modification to be effective, the reinforcement needs to be connected with the behavior; the reinforcement must matter to the child and be done consistently.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 498px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224805\/CNX_Psych_06_03_Stickers.jpg\" alt=\"A child placing stickers on a chart hanging on her wall.\" width=\"488\" height=\"325\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for behavior modification. Once this little girl earns a certain number of stickers for demonstrating a desired behavior, she will be rewarded with a trip to the ice cream parlor. (credit: Abigail Batchelder)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Time-out is another popular technique used in behavior modification with children. It operates on the principle of negative punishment. When a child demonstrates an undesirable behavior, she is removed from the desirable activity at hand (Figure 2). For example, say that Sophia and her brother Mario are playing with building blocks. Sophia throws some blocks at her brother, so you give her a warning that she will go to time-out if she does it again. A few minutes later, she throws more blocks at Mario. You remove Sophia from the room for a few minutes. When she comes back, she doesn\u2019t throw blocks.<\/p>\n<p>There are several important points that you should know if you plan to implement time-out as a behavior modification technique. First, make sure the child is being removed from a desirable activity and placed in a less desirable location. If the activity is something undesirable for the child, this technique will backfire because it is more enjoyable for the child to be removed from the activity. Second, the length of the time-out is important. The general rule of thumb is one minute for each year of the child\u2019s age. Sophia is five; therefore, she sits in a time-out for five minutes. Setting a timer helps children know how long they have to sit in time-out. Finally, as a caregiver, keep several guidelines in mind over the course of a time-out: remain calm when directing your child to time-out; ignore your child during time-out (because caregiver attention may reinforce misbehavior); and give the child a hug or a kind word when time-out is over.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_6779\" style=\"width: 642px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/30164136\/fc182656d0d3fddaaab2525040fa4dc752ba1249.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6779\" class=\"wp-image-6779\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/30164136\/fc182656d0d3fddaaab2525040fa4dc752ba1249-300x151.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph A shows several children climbing on playground equipment. Photograph B shows a child sitting alone on a bench.\" width=\"632\" height=\"318\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6779\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Time-out is a popular form of negative punishment used by caregivers. When a child misbehaves, they are removed from a desirable activity in an effort to decrease the unwanted behavior. For example, (a) a child might be playing on the playground with friends and push another child; (b) the child who misbehaved would then be removed from the activity for a short period of time. (credit a: modification of work by Simone Ramella; credit b: modification of work by \u201cSpring Dew\u201d\/Flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_54aff322-ef6d-4f0e-96ba-de5df841887e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/54aff322-ef6d-4f0e-96ba-de5df841887e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_54aff322-ef6d-4f0e-96ba-de5df841887e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Review operant conditioning and the differences between reinforcement and punishment in the following interactive:<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1291014309024075518\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div data-type=\"solution\">\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your own experiences.<\/li>\n<li>Think of a behavior that you have that you would like to change. How could you use behavior modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to change your behavior? What is your positive reinforcer?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>negative punishment:\u00a0<\/strong>taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>negative reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>positive punishment:\u00a0<\/strong>adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>positive reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>primary reinforcer:\u00a0<\/strong>has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>punishment:\u00a0<\/strong>implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secondary reinforcer:\u00a0<\/strong>has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>shaping:\u00a0<\/strong>rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-191\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification and adaptation, addition of Big Bang Learning example. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Operant conditioning interactive. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Operant Conditioning. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/6-3-operant-conditioning\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/6-3-operant-conditioning<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>BF Skinner Foundation - Pigeon Ping Pong Clip. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: bfskinnerfoundation. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Learning: Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: ByPass Publishing. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=imkbuKomPXI\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=imkbuKomPXI<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Operant Conditioning. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Dr. Mindy Rutherford. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=LSHJbIJK9TI\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=LSHJbIJK9TI<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":5797,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Operant Conditioning\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/6-3-operant-conditioning\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"BF Skinner Foundation - 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