{"id":2304,"date":"2016-11-03T04:06:08","date_gmt":"2016-11-03T04:06:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2304"},"modified":"2024-05-17T02:44:08","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T02:44:08","slug":"reading-reinforcement-schedules","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-reinforcement-schedules\/","title":{"raw":"Reinforcement Schedules","rendered":"Reinforcement Schedules"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Distinguish between reinforcement schedules<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nRemember, the best way to teach a person or animal a behavior is to use positive reinforcement. For example, Skinner used positive reinforcement to teach rats to press a lever in a Skinner box. At first, the rat might randomly hit the lever while exploring the box, and out would come a pellet of food. After eating the pellet, what do you think the hungry rat did next? It hit the lever again, and received another pellet of food. Each time the rat hit the lever, a pellet of food came out. When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior, it is called <strong>continuous reinforcement<\/strong>. This reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new behavior. Let\u2019s look back at the dog that was learning to sit earlier in the module. Now, each time he sits, you give him a treat. Timing is important here: you will be most successful if you present the reinforcer immediately after he sits, so that he can make an association between the target behavior (sitting) and the consequence (getting a treat).\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">Once a behavior is trained, researchers and trainers often turn to another type of reinforcement schedule\u2014partial reinforcement. In <strong>partial reinforcement<\/strong>, also referred to as intermittent reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior. There are several different types of partial reinforcement schedules (Table 1). These schedules are described as either fixed or variable, and as either interval or ratio. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Fixed<\/em> refers to the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Variable<\/em> refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Interval<\/em> means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">ratio<\/em> means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.\r\n<table summary=\"This table has four columns and five rows. The first row is a header row with these headings: \u201creinforcement schedule,\u201d \u201cdescription,\u201d \u201cresult,\u201d and \u201cexample.\u201d Row 1 is labeled \u201cfixed interval\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes)\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cModerate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cHospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief.\u201d Row 2 is labeled \u201cfixed interval\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes)\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cModerate yet steady response rate\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cChecking Facebook.\u201d Row 3 is labeled \u201cfixed ratio\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses)\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cHigh response rate with pauses after reinforcement\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cPiecework\u2014factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured.\u201d Row 4 is labeled \u201cvariable ratio\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cHigh and steady response rate\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cGambling.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Reinforcement Schedules<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Reinforcement Schedule<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Result<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Example<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Fixed interval<\/td>\r\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes).<\/td>\r\n<td>Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement<\/td>\r\n<td>Hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Variable interval<\/td>\r\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes).<\/td>\r\n<td>Moderate yet steady response rate<\/td>\r\n<td>Checking Facebook<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Fixed ratio<\/td>\r\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses).<\/td>\r\n<td>High response rate with pauses after reinforcement<\/td>\r\n<td>Piecework\u2014factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Variable ratio<\/td>\r\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).<\/td>\r\n<td>High and steady response rate<\/td>\r\n<td>Gambling<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNow let\u2019s combine these four terms. A <strong>fixed interval reinforcement schedule<\/strong> is when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time. For example, June undergoes major surgery in a hospital. During recovery, she is expected to experience pain and will require prescription medications for pain relief. June is given an IV drip with a patient-controlled painkiller. Her doctor sets a limit: one dose per hour. June pushes a button when pain becomes difficult, and she receives a dose of medication. Since the reward (pain relief) only occurs on a fixed interval, there is no point in exhibiting the behavior when it will not be rewarded.\r\n\r\nWith a <strong>variable interval reinforcement schedule<\/strong>, the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable. Say that Manuel is the manager at a fast-food restaurant. Every once in a while someone from the quality control division comes to Manuel\u2019s restaurant. If the restaurant is clean and the service is fast, everyone on that shift earns a $20 bonus. Manuel never knows when the quality control person will show up, so he always tries to keep the restaurant clean and ensures that his employees provide prompt and courteous service. His productivity regarding prompt service and keeping a clean restaurant are steady because he wants his crew to earn the bonus.\r\n\r\nWith a <strong>fixed ratio reinforcement schedule<\/strong>, there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded. Carla sells glasses at an eyeglass store, and she earns a commission every time she sells a pair of glasses. She always tries to sell people more pairs of glasses, including prescription sunglasses or a backup pair, so she can increase her commission. She does not care if the person really needs the prescription sunglasses, Carla just wants her bonus. The quality of what Carla sells does not matter because her commission is not based on quality; it\u2019s only based on the number of pairs sold. This distinction in the quality of performance can help determine which reinforcement method is most appropriate for a particular situation. Fixed ratios are better suited to optimize the quantity of output, whereas a fixed interval, in which the reward is not quantity based, can lead to a higher quality of output.\r\n\r\nIn a <strong>variable ratio reinforcement schedule<\/strong>, the number of responses needed for a reward varies. This is the most powerful partial reinforcement schedule. An example of the variable ratio reinforcement schedule is gambling. Imagine that Sarah\u2014generally a smart, thrifty woman\u2014visits Las Vegas for the first time. She is not a gambler, but out of curiosity she puts a quarter into the slot machine, and then another, and another. Nothing happens. Two dollars in quarters later, her curiosity is fading, and she is just about to quit. But then, the machine lights up, bells go off, and Sarah gets 50 quarters back. That\u2019s more like it! Sarah gets back to inserting quarters with renewed interest, and a few minutes later she has used up all her gains and is $10 in the hole. Now might be a sensible time to quit. And yet, she keeps putting money into the slot machine because she never knows when the next reinforcement is coming. She keeps thinking that with the next quarter she could win $50, or $100, or even more. Because the reinforcement schedule in most types of gambling has a variable ratio schedule, people keep trying and hoping that the next time they will win big. This is one of the reasons that gambling is so addictive\u2014and so resistant to extinction.\r\n\r\n<p class=\"ab-test-original\"><iframe id=\"memory-examples\" class=\"resizable\" style=\"border: none; width: 100%; height: 100%; min-height: 450px;\" src=\"https:\/\/improvingstudentsuccess.org\/learning\/nursing.html\" frameborder=\"0\"><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span>\r\n<\/iframe><\/p>\r\n\r\n<p class=\"ab-test-alternative\">&nbsp;<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nReview the schedules of reinforcement in the following video.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793464&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=GLx5yl0sxeM&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-ylcsmpkc-GLx5yl0sxeM\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/LearningSchedulesofReinforcement.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Learning: Schedules of Reinforcement\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/21ded525-2dd7-47a0-bd84-c98d427a18be\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/8a19b139-0833-4b7f-b8b6-81835c083323\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/8b23a248-4300-47be-9bd2-cdd700cd964c\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/7b731fa9-3162-4b90-9de9-79c373281e7e\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/4823abab-4291-48c4-8d89-321a112ed7ab\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/82add318-7756-4fb0-a601-755c9bc3e42a\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn operant conditioning, extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point after reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. In a variable ratio schedule, the point of extinction comes very slowly, as described above. But in the other reinforcement schedules, extinction may come quickly. For example, if June presses the button for the pain relief medication before the allotted time her doctor has approved, no medication is administered. She is on a fixed interval reinforcement schedule (dosed hourly), so extinction occurs quickly when reinforcement doesn\u2019t come at the expected time. Among the reinforcement schedules, variable ratio is the most productive and the most resistant to extinction. Fixed interval is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish (Figure 1).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6782\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"532\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/30165008\/ea1c52f0df8e41b841c11f16dc0c6c78c55a6123.jpeg\"><img class=\" wp-image-6782\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/30165008\/ea1c52f0df8e41b841c11f16dc0c6c78c55a6123-300x171.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"532\" height=\"303\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambler). A fixed ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass saleswoman). The variable interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., restaurant manager). The fixed interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., surgery patient).[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Connect the Concepts\">\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Connect the Concepts\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Connect the Concepts: Gambling and the Brain<\/h3>\r\nSkinner (1953) stated, \u201cIf the gambling establishment cannot persuade a patron to turn over money with no return, it may achieve the same effect by returning part of the patron's money on a variable-ratio schedule\u201d (p. 397).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"360\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224810\/CNX_Psych_06_03_Gambling.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows four digital gaming machines.\" width=\"360\" height=\"240\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill. (credit: Ted Murphy)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSkinner uses gambling as an example of the power of the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule for maintaining behavior even during long periods without any reinforcement. In fact, Skinner was so confident in his knowledge of gambling addiction that he even claimed he could turn a pigeon into a pathological gambler (\u201cSkinner\u2019s Utopia,\u201d 1971). It is indeed true that variable-ratio schedules keep behavior quite persistent\u2014just imagine the frequency of a child\u2019s tantrums if a parent gives in even once to the behavior. The occasional reward makes it almost impossible to stop the behavior.\r\n\r\nRecent research in rats has failed to support Skinner\u2019s idea that training on variable-ratio schedules alone causes pathological gambling (Laskowski et al., 2019). However, other research suggests that gambling does seem to work on the brain in the same way as most addictive drugs, and so there may be some combination of brain chemistry and reinforcement schedule that could lead to problem gambling (Figure 6.14). Specifically, modern research shows the connection between gambling and the activation of the reward centers of the brain that use the neurotransmitter (brain chemical) dopamine (Murch &amp; Clark, 2016). Interestingly, gamblers don\u2019t even have to win to experience the \u201crush\u201d of dopamine in the brain. \u201cNear misses,\u201d or almost winning but not actually winning, also have been shown to increase activity in the ventral striatum and other brain reward centers that use dopamine (Chase &amp; Clark, 2010). These brain effects are almost identical to those produced by addictive drugs like cocaine and heroin (Murch &amp; Clark, 2016). Based on the neuroscientific evidence showing these similarities, the DSM-5 now considers gambling an addiction, while earlier versions of the DSM classified gambling as an impulse control disorder.\r\n\r\nIn addition to dopamine, gambling also appears to involve other neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine and serotonin (Potenza, 2013). Norepinephrine is secreted when a person feels stress, arousal, or thrill. It may be that pathological gamblers use gambling to increase their levels of this neurotransmitter. Deficiencies in serotonin might also contribute to compulsive behavior, including a gambling addiction (Potenza, 2013).\r\n\r\nIt may be that pathological gamblers\u2019 brains are different than those of other people, and perhaps this difference may somehow have led to their gambling addiction, as these studies seem to suggest. However, it is very difficult to ascertain the cause because it is impossible to conduct a true experiment (it would be unethical to try to turn randomly assigned participants into problem gamblers). Therefore, it may be that causation actually moves in the opposite direction\u2014perhaps the act of gambling somehow changes neurotransmitter levels in some gamblers\u2019 brains. It also is possible that some overlooked factor, or confounding variable, played a role in both the gambling addiction and the differences in brain chemistry.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>continuous reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>rewarding a behavior every time it occurs<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fixed interval reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fixed ratio reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>operant conditioning:\u00a0<\/strong>form of learning in which the stimulus\/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>variable interval reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>variable ratio reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Distinguish between reinforcement schedules<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Remember, the best way to teach a person or animal a behavior is to use positive reinforcement. For example, Skinner used positive reinforcement to teach rats to press a lever in a Skinner box. At first, the rat might randomly hit the lever while exploring the box, and out would come a pellet of food. After eating the pellet, what do you think the hungry rat did next? It hit the lever again, and received another pellet of food. Each time the rat hit the lever, a pellet of food came out. When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior, it is called <strong>continuous reinforcement<\/strong>. This reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new behavior. Let\u2019s look back at the dog that was learning to sit earlier in the module. Now, each time he sits, you give him a treat. Timing is important here: you will be most successful if you present the reinforcer immediately after he sits, so that he can make an association between the target behavior (sitting) and the consequence (getting a treat).<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">Once a behavior is trained, researchers and trainers often turn to another type of reinforcement schedule\u2014partial reinforcement. In <strong>partial reinforcement<\/strong>, also referred to as intermittent reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior. There are several different types of partial reinforcement schedules (Table 1). These schedules are described as either fixed or variable, and as either interval or ratio. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Fixed<\/em> refers to the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Variable<\/em> refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Interval<\/em> means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">ratio<\/em> means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"This table has four columns and five rows. The first row is a header row with these headings: \u201creinforcement schedule,\u201d \u201cdescription,\u201d \u201cresult,\u201d and \u201cexample.\u201d Row 1 is labeled \u201cfixed interval\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes)\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cModerate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cHospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief.\u201d Row 2 is labeled \u201cfixed interval\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes)\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cModerate yet steady response rate\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cChecking Facebook.\u201d Row 3 is labeled \u201cfixed ratio\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses)\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cHigh response rate with pauses after reinforcement\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cPiecework\u2014factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured.\u201d Row 4 is labeled \u201cvariable ratio\u201d; the \u201cdescription\u201d reads \u201cReinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).\u201d; the \u201cresult\u201d reads \u201cHigh and steady response rate\u201d; the \u201cexample\u201d reads \u201cGambling.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Reinforcement Schedules<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Reinforcement Schedule<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Result<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Example<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Fixed interval<\/td>\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes).<\/td>\n<td>Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement<\/td>\n<td>Hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Variable interval<\/td>\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes).<\/td>\n<td>Moderate yet steady response rate<\/td>\n<td>Checking Facebook<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Fixed ratio<\/td>\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses).<\/td>\n<td>High response rate with pauses after reinforcement<\/td>\n<td>Piecework\u2014factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Variable ratio<\/td>\n<td>Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).<\/td>\n<td>High and steady response rate<\/td>\n<td>Gambling<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Now let\u2019s combine these four terms. A <strong>fixed interval reinforcement schedule<\/strong> is when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time. For example, June undergoes major surgery in a hospital. During recovery, she is expected to experience pain and will require prescription medications for pain relief. June is given an IV drip with a patient-controlled painkiller. Her doctor sets a limit: one dose per hour. June pushes a button when pain becomes difficult, and she receives a dose of medication. Since the reward (pain relief) only occurs on a fixed interval, there is no point in exhibiting the behavior when it will not be rewarded.<\/p>\n<p>With a <strong>variable interval reinforcement schedule<\/strong>, the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable. Say that Manuel is the manager at a fast-food restaurant. Every once in a while someone from the quality control division comes to Manuel\u2019s restaurant. If the restaurant is clean and the service is fast, everyone on that shift earns a $20 bonus. Manuel never knows when the quality control person will show up, so he always tries to keep the restaurant clean and ensures that his employees provide prompt and courteous service. His productivity regarding prompt service and keeping a clean restaurant are steady because he wants his crew to earn the bonus.<\/p>\n<p>With a <strong>fixed ratio reinforcement schedule<\/strong>, there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded. Carla sells glasses at an eyeglass store, and she earns a commission every time she sells a pair of glasses. She always tries to sell people more pairs of glasses, including prescription sunglasses or a backup pair, so she can increase her commission. She does not care if the person really needs the prescription sunglasses, Carla just wants her bonus. The quality of what Carla sells does not matter because her commission is not based on quality; it\u2019s only based on the number of pairs sold. This distinction in the quality of performance can help determine which reinforcement method is most appropriate for a particular situation. Fixed ratios are better suited to optimize the quantity of output, whereas a fixed interval, in which the reward is not quantity based, can lead to a higher quality of output.<\/p>\n<p>In a <strong>variable ratio reinforcement schedule<\/strong>, the number of responses needed for a reward varies. This is the most powerful partial reinforcement schedule. An example of the variable ratio reinforcement schedule is gambling. Imagine that Sarah\u2014generally a smart, thrifty woman\u2014visits Las Vegas for the first time. She is not a gambler, but out of curiosity she puts a quarter into the slot machine, and then another, and another. Nothing happens. Two dollars in quarters later, her curiosity is fading, and she is just about to quit. But then, the machine lights up, bells go off, and Sarah gets 50 quarters back. That\u2019s more like it! Sarah gets back to inserting quarters with renewed interest, and a few minutes later she has used up all her gains and is $10 in the hole. Now might be a sensible time to quit. And yet, she keeps putting money into the slot machine because she never knows when the next reinforcement is coming. She keeps thinking that with the next quarter she could win $50, or $100, or even more. Because the reinforcement schedule in most types of gambling has a variable ratio schedule, people keep trying and hoping that the next time they will win big. This is one of the reasons that gambling is so addictive\u2014and so resistant to extinction.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ab-test-original\"><iframe id=\"memory-examples\" class=\"resizable\" style=\"border: none; width: 100%; height: 100%; min-height: 450px;\" src=\"https:\/\/improvingstudentsuccess.org\/learning\/nursing.html\" frameborder=\"0\"><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><br \/>\n<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p class=\"ab-test-alternative\">&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Review the schedules of reinforcement in the following video.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793464&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=GLx5yl0sxeM&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-ylcsmpkc-GLx5yl0sxeM\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/LearningSchedulesofReinforcement.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Learning: Schedules of Reinforcement&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_21ded525-2dd7-47a0-bd84-c98d427a18be\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/21ded525-2dd7-47a0-bd84-c98d427a18be?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_21ded525-2dd7-47a0-bd84-c98d427a18be\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_8a19b139-0833-4b7f-b8b6-81835c083323\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/8a19b139-0833-4b7f-b8b6-81835c083323?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_8a19b139-0833-4b7f-b8b6-81835c083323\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_8b23a248-4300-47be-9bd2-cdd700cd964c\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/8b23a248-4300-47be-9bd2-cdd700cd964c?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_8b23a248-4300-47be-9bd2-cdd700cd964c\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_7b731fa9-3162-4b90-9de9-79c373281e7e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/7b731fa9-3162-4b90-9de9-79c373281e7e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_7b731fa9-3162-4b90-9de9-79c373281e7e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_4823abab-4291-48c4-8d89-321a112ed7ab\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/4823abab-4291-48c4-8d89-321a112ed7ab?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_4823abab-4291-48c4-8d89-321a112ed7ab\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_82add318-7756-4fb0-a601-755c9bc3e42a\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/82add318-7756-4fb0-a601-755c9bc3e42a?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_82add318-7756-4fb0-a601-755c9bc3e42a\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In operant conditioning, extinction of a reinforced behavior occurs at some point after reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. In a variable ratio schedule, the point of extinction comes very slowly, as described above. But in the other reinforcement schedules, extinction may come quickly. For example, if June presses the button for the pain relief medication before the allotted time her doctor has approved, no medication is administered. She is on a fixed interval reinforcement schedule (dosed hourly), so extinction occurs quickly when reinforcement doesn\u2019t come at the expected time. Among the reinforcement schedules, variable ratio is the most productive and the most resistant to extinction. Fixed interval is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish (Figure 1).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_6782\" style=\"width: 542px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/30165008\/ea1c52f0df8e41b841c11f16dc0c6c78c55a6123.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6782\" class=\"wp-image-6782\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/30165008\/ea1c52f0df8e41b841c11f16dc0c6c78c55a6123-300x171.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"532\" height=\"303\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6782\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambler). A fixed ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass saleswoman). The variable interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., restaurant manager). The fixed interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., surgery patient).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Connect the Concepts\">\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Connect the Concepts\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Connect the Concepts: Gambling and the Brain<\/h3>\n<p>Skinner (1953) stated, \u201cIf the gambling establishment cannot persuade a patron to turn over money with no return, it may achieve the same effect by returning part of the patron&#8217;s money on a variable-ratio schedule\u201d (p. 397).<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 370px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224810\/CNX_Psych_06_03_Gambling.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows four digital gaming machines.\" width=\"360\" height=\"240\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill. (credit: Ted Murphy)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Skinner uses gambling as an example of the power of the variable-ratio reinforcement schedule for maintaining behavior even during long periods without any reinforcement. In fact, Skinner was so confident in his knowledge of gambling addiction that he even claimed he could turn a pigeon into a pathological gambler (\u201cSkinner\u2019s Utopia,\u201d 1971). It is indeed true that variable-ratio schedules keep behavior quite persistent\u2014just imagine the frequency of a child\u2019s tantrums if a parent gives in even once to the behavior. The occasional reward makes it almost impossible to stop the behavior.<\/p>\n<p>Recent research in rats has failed to support Skinner\u2019s idea that training on variable-ratio schedules alone causes pathological gambling (Laskowski et al., 2019). However, other research suggests that gambling does seem to work on the brain in the same way as most addictive drugs, and so there may be some combination of brain chemistry and reinforcement schedule that could lead to problem gambling (Figure 6.14). Specifically, modern research shows the connection between gambling and the activation of the reward centers of the brain that use the neurotransmitter (brain chemical) dopamine (Murch &amp; Clark, 2016). Interestingly, gamblers don\u2019t even have to win to experience the \u201crush\u201d of dopamine in the brain. \u201cNear misses,\u201d or almost winning but not actually winning, also have been shown to increase activity in the ventral striatum and other brain reward centers that use dopamine (Chase &amp; Clark, 2010). These brain effects are almost identical to those produced by addictive drugs like cocaine and heroin (Murch &amp; Clark, 2016). Based on the neuroscientific evidence showing these similarities, the DSM-5 now considers gambling an addiction, while earlier versions of the DSM classified gambling as an impulse control disorder.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to dopamine, gambling also appears to involve other neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine and serotonin (Potenza, 2013). Norepinephrine is secreted when a person feels stress, arousal, or thrill. It may be that pathological gamblers use gambling to increase their levels of this neurotransmitter. Deficiencies in serotonin might also contribute to compulsive behavior, including a gambling addiction (Potenza, 2013).<\/p>\n<p>It may be that pathological gamblers\u2019 brains are different than those of other people, and perhaps this difference may somehow have led to their gambling addiction, as these studies seem to suggest. However, it is very difficult to ascertain the cause because it is impossible to conduct a true experiment (it would be unethical to try to turn randomly assigned participants into problem gamblers). Therefore, it may be that causation actually moves in the opposite direction\u2014perhaps the act of gambling somehow changes neurotransmitter levels in some gamblers\u2019 brains. It also is possible that some overlooked factor, or confounding variable, played a role in both the gambling addiction and the differences in brain chemistry.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>continuous reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>rewarding a behavior every time it occurs<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fixed interval reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fixed ratio reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>operant conditioning:\u00a0<\/strong>form of learning in which the stimulus\/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>variable interval reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>variable ratio reinforcement schedule:\u00a0<\/strong>number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2304\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification and adaptation, addition of tutorial. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li><strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Operant Conditioning. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/6-3-operant-conditioning\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/6-3-operant-conditioning<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Learning: Schedules of Reinforcement. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: ByPass Publishing. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=GLx5yl0sxeM\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=GLx5yl0sxeM<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Operant Conditioning\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/6-3-operant-conditioning\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Learning: Schedules of Reinforcement\",\"author\":\"ByPass Publishing\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=GLx5yl0sxeM\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification and adaptation, addition of tutorial\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"e7506ae0-53d7-4dd4-aa9c-af7c64ee31ce, 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