{"id":232,"date":"2015-02-06T23:15:45","date_gmt":"2015-02-06T23:15:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ospsych\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=232"},"modified":"2024-05-17T02:37:42","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T02:37:42","slug":"parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\/","title":{"raw":"Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory","rendered":"Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAre memories stored in just one part of the brain, or are they stored in many different parts of the brain? Karl Lashley began exploring this problem, about 100 years ago, by making lesions in the brains of animals such as rats and monkeys. He was searching for evidence of the <strong>engram<\/strong>: the group of neurons that serve as the \u201cphysical representation of memory\u201d (Josselyn, 2010). First, Lashley (1950) trained rats to find their way through a maze. Then, he used the tools available at the time\u2014in this case a soldering iron\u2014to create lesions in the rats\u2019 brains, specifically in the cerebral cortex. He did this because he was trying to erase the engram, or the original memory trace that the rats had of the maze.\r\n\r\nLashley did not find evidence of the engram, and the rats were still able to find their way through the maze, regardless of the size or location of the lesion. Based on his creation of lesions and the animals\u2019 reaction, he formulated the <strong>equipotentiality hypothesis<\/strong>: if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function (Lashley, 1950). Although Lashley\u2019s early work did not confirm the existence of the engram, modern psychologists are making progress locating it. For example, Eric Kandel has spent decades studying the synapse and its role in controlling the flow of information through neural circuits needed to store memories (Mayford, Siegelbaum, &amp; Kandel, 2012).\r\n\r\nMany scientists believe that the entire brain is involved with memory. However, since Lashley\u2019s research, other scientists have been able to look more closely at the brain and memory. They have argued that memory is located in specific parts of the brain, and specific neurons can be recognized for their involvement in forming memories. The main parts of the brain involved with memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex (Figure 1).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6841\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\"><img class=\"wp-image-6841 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a brain shows the location of the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex.\" width=\"649\" height=\"431\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Amygdala<\/h2>\r\nFirst, let\u2019s look at the role of the amygdala in memory formation. The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones. For example, one researcher experimented with rats and the fear response (Josselyn, 2010). Using Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral tone was paired with a foot shock to the rats. This produced a fear memory in the rats. After being conditioned, each time they heard the tone, they would freeze (a defense response in rats), indicating a memory for the impending shock. Then the researchers induced cell death in neurons in the lateral amygdala, which is the specific area of the brain responsible for fear memories. They found the fear memory faded (became extinct). Because of its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory. The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nIn this TED Talk called <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/steve_ramirez_and_xu_liu_a_mouse_a_laser_beam_a_manipulated_memory\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cA Mouse. A Laser Beam. A Manipulated Memory,\u201d<\/a> Steve Ramirez and Xu Liu from MIT talk about using laser beams to manipulate fear memory in rats. Find out why their work caused a media frenzy once it was published in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Science<\/em>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Hippocampus<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAnother group of researchers also experimented with rats to learn how the hippocampus functions in memory processing. They created lesions in the hippocampi of the rats, and found that the rats demonstrated memory impairment on various tasks, such as object recognition and maze running. They concluded that the hippocampus is involved in memory, specifically normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory (when the memory tasks are like recall tests) (Clark, Zola, &amp; Squire, 2000). Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. It also plays a part in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory.\r\n\r\nInjury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories. One famous patient, known for years only as H. M., had both his left and right temporal lobes (hippocampi) removed in an attempt to help control the seizures he had been suffering from for years (Corkin, Amaral, Gonz\u00e1lez, Johnson, &amp; Hyman, 1997). As a result, his declarative memory was significantly affected, and he could not form new semantic knowledge. He lost the ability to form new memories, yet he could still remember information and events that had occurred prior to the surgery.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/SQASyR0w8Qo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">View this Slate video for a closer look at how memory works, as well as how researchers are now studying H. M.\u2019s brain.<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex<\/h2>\r\nAlthough the hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for explicit memories, you could still lose it and be able to create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning), thanks to your cerebellum. For example, one classical conditioning experiment is to accustom subjects to blink when they are given a puff of air to the eyes. When researchers damaged the cerebellums of rabbits, they discovered that the rabbits were not able to learn the conditioned eye-blink response (Steinmetz, 1999; Green &amp; Woodruff-Pak, 2000).\r\n\r\nOther researchers have used brain scans, including positron emission tomography (PET) scans, to learn how people process and retain information. From these studies, it seems the prefrontal cortex is involved. In one study, participants had to complete two different tasks: either looking for the letter <em data-effect=\"italics\">a<\/em> in words (considered a perceptual task) or categorizing a noun as either living or non-living (considered a semantic task) (Kapur et al., 1994). Participants were then asked which words they had previously seen. Recall was much better for the semantic task than for the perceptual task. According to PET scans, there was much more activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex in the semantic task. In another study, encoding was associated with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information was associated with the right frontal region (Craik et al., 1999).\r\n\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Neurotransmitters<\/h2>\r\nThere also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine (Myhrer, 2003). There continues to be discussion and debate among researchers as to which neurotransmitter plays which specific role (Blockland, 1996). Although we don\u2019t yet know which role each neurotransmitter plays in memory, we do know that communication among neurons via neurotransmitters is critical for developing new memories. Repeated activity by neurons leads to increased neurotransmitters in the synapses and more efficient and more synaptic connections. This is how memory consolidation occurs.\r\n\r\nIt is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called <strong>arousal theory<\/strong> (Christianson, 1992). For example, strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory; therefore, our memory for an emotional event is usually better than our memory for a non-emotional event. When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event (McGaugh, 2003). This is clearly evidenced by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to learn more about flashbulbs memories, and why some of these vivid memories aren't always as accurate as we may believe.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3kE1M-MfXxc\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nA <strong>flashbulb memory<\/strong> is an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event (Figure 2). Where were you when you first heard about the 9\/11 terrorist attacks? Most likely you can remember where you were and what you were doing. In fact, a Pew Research Center (2011) survey found that for those Americans who were age 8 or older at the time of the event, 97% can recall the moment they learned of this event, even a decade after it happened.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"488\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224857\/CNX_Psych_08_02_911n.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows the World Trade Center buildings, shortly after two planes were flown into them on the morning of September 11, 2001. Thick, black clouds of smoke stream from both buildings.\" width=\"488\" height=\"366\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 2. Most people can remember where they were when they first heard about the 9\/11 terrorist attacks. This is an example of a flashbulb memory: a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. (credit: Michael Foran)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Dig Deeper: Inaccurate and False Memories<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">Even flashbulb memories for important events can have decreased accuracy with the passage of time. For example, on at least three occasions, when asked how he heard about the terrorist attacks of 9\/11, President George W. Bush responded inaccurately. In January 2002, less than 4 months after the attacks, the then sitting President Bush was asked how he heard about the attacks. President George W. Bush's description is actually about the second plane hitting the twin towers.<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">He responded:<\/div>\r\n<blockquote>I was sitting there, and my Chief of Staff\u2014well, first of all, when we walked into the classroom, I had seen this plane fly into the first building. There was a TV set on. And you know, I thought it was pilot error and I was amazed that anybody could make such a terrible mistake. (Greenberg, 2004, p. 2)<\/blockquote>\r\nDo you remember where you were when you heard about a traumatic event in your community? Who were you with and what were you doing? What did you talk about? Can you contact those people you were with? Do they have the same memories as you or do they have different memories?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/def3e8fd-4aba-4361-89fb-4cce39a304eb\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/98cf2a22-6652-4720-9f3d-abace925f2df\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e733e375-9fd7-4afa-928f-27ee75e56913\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div><section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div><section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div data-type=\"problem\">\r\n\r\nDescribe a flashbulb memory of a significant event in your life.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\"><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/div>\r\n<div><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\"><strong>arousal theory:\u00a0<\/strong>strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>engram:\u00a0<\/strong>physical trace of memory<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>equipotentiality hypothesis:\u00a0<\/strong>some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>flashbulb memory:\u00a0<\/strong>exceptionally clear recollection of an important event<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Are memories stored in just one part of the brain, or are they stored in many different parts of the brain? Karl Lashley began exploring this problem, about 100 years ago, by making lesions in the brains of animals such as rats and monkeys. He was searching for evidence of the <strong>engram<\/strong>: the group of neurons that serve as the \u201cphysical representation of memory\u201d (Josselyn, 2010). First, Lashley (1950) trained rats to find their way through a maze. Then, he used the tools available at the time\u2014in this case a soldering iron\u2014to create lesions in the rats\u2019 brains, specifically in the cerebral cortex. He did this because he was trying to erase the engram, or the original memory trace that the rats had of the maze.<\/p>\n<p>Lashley did not find evidence of the engram, and the rats were still able to find their way through the maze, regardless of the size or location of the lesion. Based on his creation of lesions and the animals\u2019 reaction, he formulated the <strong>equipotentiality hypothesis<\/strong>: if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function (Lashley, 1950). Although Lashley\u2019s early work did not confirm the existence of the engram, modern psychologists are making progress locating it. For example, Eric Kandel has spent decades studying the synapse and its role in controlling the flow of information through neural circuits needed to store memories (Mayford, Siegelbaum, &amp; Kandel, 2012).<\/p>\n<p>Many scientists believe that the entire brain is involved with memory. However, since Lashley\u2019s research, other scientists have been able to look more closely at the brain and memory. They have argued that memory is located in specific parts of the brain, and specific neurons can be recognized for their involvement in forming memories. The main parts of the brain involved with memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex (Figure 1).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_6841\" style=\"width: 659px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6841\" class=\"wp-image-6841 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a brain shows the location of the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex.\" width=\"649\" height=\"431\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6841\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Amygdala<\/h2>\n<p>First, let\u2019s look at the role of the amygdala in memory formation. The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones. For example, one researcher experimented with rats and the fear response (Josselyn, 2010). Using Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral tone was paired with a foot shock to the rats. This produced a fear memory in the rats. After being conditioned, each time they heard the tone, they would freeze (a defense response in rats), indicating a memory for the impending shock. Then the researchers induced cell death in neurons in the lateral amygdala, which is the specific area of the brain responsible for fear memories. They found the fear memory faded (became extinct). Because of its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory. The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>In this TED Talk called <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/steve_ramirez_and_xu_liu_a_mouse_a_laser_beam_a_manipulated_memory\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cA Mouse. A Laser Beam. A Manipulated Memory,\u201d<\/a> Steve Ramirez and Xu Liu from MIT talk about using laser beams to manipulate fear memory in rats. Find out why their work caused a media frenzy once it was published in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Science<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Hippocampus<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p>Another group of researchers also experimented with rats to learn how the hippocampus functions in memory processing. They created lesions in the hippocampi of the rats, and found that the rats demonstrated memory impairment on various tasks, such as object recognition and maze running. They concluded that the hippocampus is involved in memory, specifically normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory (when the memory tasks are like recall tests) (Clark, Zola, &amp; Squire, 2000). Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. It also plays a part in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory.<\/p>\n<p>Injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories. One famous patient, known for years only as H. M., had both his left and right temporal lobes (hippocampi) removed in an attempt to help control the seizures he had been suffering from for years (Corkin, Amaral, Gonz\u00e1lez, Johnson, &amp; Hyman, 1997). As a result, his declarative memory was significantly affected, and he could not form new semantic knowledge. He lost the ability to form new memories, yet he could still remember information and events that had occurred prior to the surgery.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/SQASyR0w8Qo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">View this Slate video for a closer look at how memory works, as well as how researchers are now studying H. M.\u2019s brain.<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex<\/h2>\n<p>Although the hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for explicit memories, you could still lose it and be able to create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning), thanks to your cerebellum. For example, one classical conditioning experiment is to accustom subjects to blink when they are given a puff of air to the eyes. When researchers damaged the cerebellums of rabbits, they discovered that the rabbits were not able to learn the conditioned eye-blink response (Steinmetz, 1999; Green &amp; Woodruff-Pak, 2000).<\/p>\n<p>Other researchers have used brain scans, including positron emission tomography (PET) scans, to learn how people process and retain information. From these studies, it seems the prefrontal cortex is involved. In one study, participants had to complete two different tasks: either looking for the letter <em data-effect=\"italics\">a<\/em> in words (considered a perceptual task) or categorizing a noun as either living or non-living (considered a semantic task) (Kapur et al., 1994). Participants were then asked which words they had previously seen. Recall was much better for the semantic task than for the perceptual task. According to PET scans, there was much more activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex in the semantic task. In another study, encoding was associated with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information was associated with the right frontal region (Craik et al., 1999).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Neurotransmitters<\/h2>\n<p>There also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine (Myhrer, 2003). There continues to be discussion and debate among researchers as to which neurotransmitter plays which specific role (Blockland, 1996). Although we don\u2019t yet know which role each neurotransmitter plays in memory, we do know that communication among neurons via neurotransmitters is critical for developing new memories. Repeated activity by neurons leads to increased neurotransmitters in the synapses and more efficient and more synaptic connections. This is how memory consolidation occurs.<\/p>\n<p>It is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called <strong>arousal theory<\/strong> (Christianson, 1992). For example, strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory; therefore, our memory for an emotional event is usually better than our memory for a non-emotional event. When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event (McGaugh, 2003). This is clearly evidenced by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to learn more about flashbulbs memories, and why some of these vivid memories aren&#8217;t always as accurate as we may believe.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Your Most Vivid Memories Aren&#39;t As Accurate As You Think\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/3kE1M-MfXxc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>A <strong>flashbulb memory<\/strong> is an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event (Figure 2). Where were you when you first heard about the 9\/11 terrorist attacks? Most likely you can remember where you were and what you were doing. In fact, a Pew Research Center (2011) survey found that for those Americans who were age 8 or older at the time of the event, 97% can recall the moment they learned of this event, even a decade after it happened.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 498px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224857\/CNX_Psych_08_02_911n.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows the World Trade Center buildings, shortly after two planes were flown into them on the morning of September 11, 2001. Thick, black clouds of smoke stream from both buildings.\" width=\"488\" height=\"366\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. Most people can remember where they were when they first heard about the 9\/11 terrorist attacks. This is an example of a flashbulb memory: a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. (credit: Michael Foran)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Dig Deeper: Inaccurate and False Memories<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"title\">Even flashbulb memories for important events can have decreased accuracy with the passage of time. For example, on at least three occasions, when asked how he heard about the terrorist attacks of 9\/11, President George W. Bush responded inaccurately. In January 2002, less than 4 months after the attacks, the then sitting President Bush was asked how he heard about the attacks. President George W. Bush&#8217;s description is actually about the second plane hitting the twin towers.<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"title\">He responded:<\/div>\n<blockquote><p>I was sitting there, and my Chief of Staff\u2014well, first of all, when we walked into the classroom, I had seen this plane fly into the first building. There was a TV set on. And you know, I thought it was pilot error and I was amazed that anybody could make such a terrible mistake. (Greenberg, 2004, p. 2)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Do you remember where you were when you heard about a traumatic event in your community? Who were you with and what were you doing? What did you talk about? Can you contact those people you were with? Do they have the same memories as you or do they have different memories?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_def3e8fd-4aba-4361-89fb-4cce39a304eb\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/def3e8fd-4aba-4361-89fb-4cce39a304eb?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_def3e8fd-4aba-4361-89fb-4cce39a304eb\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_98cf2a22-6652-4720-9f3d-abace925f2df\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/98cf2a22-6652-4720-9f3d-abace925f2df?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_98cf2a22-6652-4720-9f3d-abace925f2df\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_e733e375-9fd7-4afa-928f-27ee75e56913\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e733e375-9fd7-4afa-928f-27ee75e56913?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_e733e375-9fd7-4afa-928f-27ee75e56913\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div>\n<section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div>\n<section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\">\n<p>Describe a flashbulb memory of a significant event in your life.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\"><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\"><strong>arousal theory:\u00a0<\/strong>strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>engram:\u00a0<\/strong>physical trace of memory<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>equipotentiality hypothesis:\u00a0<\/strong>some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>flashbulb memory:\u00a0<\/strong>exceptionally clear recollection of an important event<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-232\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Your Most Vivid Memories Aren&#039;t As Accurate As You Think. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: SciShow Psych. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3kE1M-MfXxc\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3kE1M-MfXxc<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/8-2-parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/8-2-parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":5797,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/8-2-parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Your Most Vivid Memories Aren\\'t As Accurate As You Think\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"SciShow Psych\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3kE1M-MfXxc\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"50862132-d891-4ee6-b835-27aecf8d3678, 626e281d-0e40-4911-b536-4506d53767cb","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-232","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":517,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/232","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5797"}],"version-history":[{"count":36,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/232\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8244,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/232\/revisions\/8244"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/517"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/232\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=232"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=232"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=232"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=232"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}