{"id":2351,"date":"2016-11-04T03:17:22","date_gmt":"2016-11-04T03:17:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2351"},"modified":"2024-05-17T14:59:56","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T14:59:56","slug":"reading-childhood","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-childhood\/","title":{"raw":"Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development","rendered":"Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the cognitive\u00a0development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Physical Development<\/h2>\r\nIn infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body\u2019s physical development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn\u2019s weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Growth.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler next to a toy giraffe. To the right is a baby blowing out a single candle. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"975\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit \"left\": modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit \"middle-left\": modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit \"middle-right\": modification of work by \"devinf\"\/Flickr; credit \"right\": modification of work by Rose Spielman)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nDuring infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &amp; Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year. Once girls reach 8\u20139 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.\r\n\r\nWe are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have\u2014about 100\u2013200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher &amp; Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages 3\u20136), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget\u2019s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nMotor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking.\r\n\r\n<strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. <strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). <strong>Gross motor skill<\/strong>s focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).\r\n\r\nAs motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve (Table 1). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child\u2019s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.\r\n<table summary=\"A five column table describes developmental milestones from the ages of two through five. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cage (years), physical, personal\/social, language, and cognitive.\u201d The contents of the first row, respectively, are \u201c2; kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs; plays alongside other children, copies adults; points to objects when named, puts 2-4 words together in a sentence; and sorts shapes and colors, follows 2-step instructions.\u201d The second row contains \u201c3; climbs and runs, pedals tricycle; takes turns, expresses many emotions, dresses self; names familiar things, uses pronouns; and plays make believe, works toys with parts (levers, handles).\u201d The third row contains \u201c4; catches balls, uses scissors; prefers social play to solo play, knows likes and interests; knows songs and rhymes by memory; and names colors and numbers, begins writing letters.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c5; hops and swings, uses fork and spoon; distinguishes real from pretend, likes to please friends; speaks clearly, uses full sentences; and counts to 10 or higher, prints some letters and copies basic shapes.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2\u20135 Years<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Physical<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Personal\/Social<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Language<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Cognitive<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\r\n<td>Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\r\n<td>Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td>Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\r\n<td>Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\r\n<td>Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\r\n<td>Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\r\n<td>Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\r\n<td>Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\r\n<td>Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\r\n<td>Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\r\n<td>Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\r\n<td>Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5004\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/04195054\/Dad-1280x854.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-5004 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/04195054\/Dad-1280x854-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Man and baby\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a> Figure 2. Man with a baby.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Cognitive Development<\/h2>\r\nIn addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that children\u2019s ability to understand objects\u2014such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken\u2014was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, &amp; Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure 2). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon\u2019s findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_TruckBox.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" width=\"975\" height=\"188\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. In Baillargeon\u2019s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">Just as there are physical milestones that we expect children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">Just as there are <strong><em>physical milestones<\/em><\/strong> that we expect children to reach, there are also <strong><em>cognitive milestones<\/em><\/strong>. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/div>\r\nPreschool-age children (i.e., 3\u20135 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \u201cWhy?\u201d\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory of mind (TOM)<\/strong>. Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n\r\nFalse-belief tasks are useful in determining a child\u2019s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). Take a look at this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/crayons\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">video clip showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons<\/a>.\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793482&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=8hLubgpY2_w&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-j86iu9me-8hLubgpY2_w\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/TheFalseBeliefTestTheoryOfMind.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"The \"False Belief\" Test: Theory of Mind\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/06dab348-7b3c-4bc9-95ab-f9a73b210812\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nCognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Figure 3). Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children\u2019s attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Game.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph of children playing baseball is shown. Five children are in the picture, two on one team, and three on the other.\" width=\"325\" height=\"215\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Because they understand luck and fairness, children in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old) are able to follow rules for games. (credit: Edwin Martinez)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nOne well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). You\u2019ve also learned that some psychological researchers have proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition.\r\n\r\nStarting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. At birth, babies apparently recognize their mother\u2019s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).\r\n\r\nChildren communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to babble. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months.\r\n\r\nAt about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the \u201cvocabulary spurt\u201d and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10\u201320 new words per week. Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger &amp; Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clich\u00e9s (Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, \u201cme juice,\u201d to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner\u2019s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman &amp; Newport, 1995; Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n\r\nWhat accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to <strong>reinforcement<\/strong>, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, \u201cme juice,\u201d to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice.\r\n\r\nNoam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner\u2019s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman &amp; Newport, 1995; Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Everyday Connection: The Importance of Play and Recess<\/h3>\r\nAccording to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child\u2019s development. It builds creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others.\r\n\r\nOutdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical activity. This helps support the development of a healthy heart and brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today\u2019s children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activity in conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood obesity (Karnik &amp; Kanekar, 2012).\r\n\r\nDespite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have little free time to engage in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess as a form of punishment. Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>cognitive empathy:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fine motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>gross motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to move our body and manipulate objects<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>feedback that strengthens future behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>theory of mind:\u00a0<\/strong>that children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from their own<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\n<li>Explain the cognitive\u00a0development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Physical Development<\/h2>\n<p>In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body\u2019s physical development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn\u2019s weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Growth.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler next to a toy giraffe. To the right is a baby blowing out a single candle. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"975\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit &#8220;left&#8221;: modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit &#8220;middle-left&#8221;: modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit &#8220;middle-right&#8221;: modification of work by &#8220;devinf&#8221;\/Flickr; credit &#8220;right&#8221;: modification of work by Rose Spielman)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &amp; Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year. Once girls reach 8\u20139 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.<\/p>\n<p>We are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have\u2014about 100\u2013200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher &amp; Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages 3\u20136), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget\u2019s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. <strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). <strong>Gross motor skill<\/strong>s focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).<\/p>\n<p>As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve (Table 1). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child\u2019s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A five column table describes developmental milestones from the ages of two through five. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cage (years), physical, personal\/social, language, and cognitive.\u201d The contents of the first row, respectively, are \u201c2; kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs; plays alongside other children, copies adults; points to objects when named, puts 2-4 words together in a sentence; and sorts shapes and colors, follows 2-step instructions.\u201d The second row contains \u201c3; climbs and runs, pedals tricycle; takes turns, expresses many emotions, dresses self; names familiar things, uses pronouns; and plays make believe, works toys with parts (levers, handles).\u201d The third row contains \u201c4; catches balls, uses scissors; prefers social play to solo play, knows likes and interests; knows songs and rhymes by memory; and names colors and numbers, begins writing letters.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c5; hops and swings, uses fork and spoon; distinguishes real from pretend, likes to please friends; speaks clearly, uses full sentences; and counts to 10 or higher, prints some letters and copies basic shapes.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2\u20135 Years<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Physical<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Personal\/Social<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Language<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Cognitive<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\n<td>Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\n<td>Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\n<td>Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\n<td>Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\n<td>Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\n<td>Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\n<td>Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\n<td>Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\n<td>Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\n<td>Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\n<td>Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\n<td>Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6fa7f982-bd21-49ce-811d-e665c944a31f\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_6a218384-a01d-4e63-85f8-103ecc6d51ed\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a5e213bc-56da-4c32-8a56-ee624795d464\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_5be5400e-793a-44eb-b4f1-aeb084b8d64d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<div id=\"attachment_5004\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/04195054\/Dad-1280x854.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5004\" class=\"wp-image-5004 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/04195054\/Dad-1280x854-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Man and baby\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5004\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. Man with a baby.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Cognitive Development<\/h2>\n<p>In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that children\u2019s ability to understand objects\u2014such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken\u2014was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, &amp; Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure 2). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon\u2019s findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_TruckBox.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" width=\"975\" height=\"188\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. In Baillargeon\u2019s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">Just as there are physical milestones that we expect children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">Just as there are <strong><em>physical milestones<\/em><\/strong> that we expect children to reach, there are also <strong><em>cognitive milestones<\/em><\/strong>. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/div>\n<p>Preschool-age children (i.e., 3\u20135 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \u201cWhy?\u201d<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory of mind (TOM)<\/strong>. Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<p>False-belief tasks are useful in determining a child\u2019s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). Take a look at this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/crayons\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">video clip showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons<\/a>.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793482&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=8hLubgpY2_w&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-j86iu9me-8hLubgpY2_w\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/TheFalseBeliefTestTheoryOfMind.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;The &#8220;False Belief&#8221; Test: Theory of Mind&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_06dab348-7b3c-4bc9-95ab-f9a73b210812\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/06dab348-7b3c-4bc9-95ab-f9a73b210812?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_06dab348-7b3c-4bc9-95ab-f9a73b210812\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Figure 3). Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children\u2019s attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Game.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph of children playing baseball is shown. Five children are in the picture, two on one team, and three on the other.\" width=\"325\" height=\"215\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Because they understand luck and fairness, children in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old) are able to follow rules for games. (credit: Edwin Martinez)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>One well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). You\u2019ve also learned that some psychological researchers have proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition.<\/p>\n<p>Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. At birth, babies apparently recognize their mother\u2019s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/p>\n<p>Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to babble. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months.<\/p>\n<p>At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children&#8217;s vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the \u201cvocabulary spurt\u201d and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10\u201320 new words per week. Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger &amp; Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clich\u00e9s (Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, \u201cme juice,\u201d to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner\u2019s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman &amp; Newport, 1995; Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<p>What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to <strong>reinforcement<\/strong>, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, \u201cme juice,\u201d to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice.<\/p>\n<p>Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner\u2019s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman &amp; Newport, 1995; Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Everyday Connection: The Importance of Play and Recess<\/h3>\n<p>According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child\u2019s development. It builds creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others.<\/p>\n<p>Outdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical activity. This helps support the development of a healthy heart and brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today\u2019s children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activity in conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood obesity (Karnik &amp; Kanekar, 2012).<\/p>\n<p>Despite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have little free time to engage in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess as a form of punishment. Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>cognitive empathy:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fine motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>gross motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to move our body and manipulate objects<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>reinforcement:\u00a0<\/strong>feedback that strengthens future behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>theory of mind:\u00a0<\/strong>that children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs different from their own<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2351\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification and adaptation, addition of TED talk. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Stages of Development. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The False Belief Test: Theory of Mind. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: 007IceWeasel. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"The False Belief Test: Theory of Mind\",\"author\":\"007IceWeasel\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Stages of Development\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification and adaptation, addition of TED talk\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen 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