{"id":356,"date":"2015-02-06T23:15:42","date_gmt":"2015-02-06T23:15:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ospsych\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=356"},"modified":"2024-05-17T15:13:36","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T15:13:36","slug":"perspectives-on-psychological-disorders","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/perspectives-on-psychological-disorders\/","title":{"raw":"Perspectives on Psychological Disorders","rendered":"Perspectives on Psychological Disorders"},"content":{"raw":"<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss historical and supernatural perspectives as well as modern biological and social perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Supernatural Perspectives of Psychological Disorders<\/h2>\r\nFor centuries, psychological disorders were viewed from a supernatural perspective: attributed to a force beyond scientific understanding. Those afflicted were thought to be practitioners of black magic or possessed by spirits (Figure 1) (Maher &amp; Maher, 1985). For example, convents throughout Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries reported hundreds of nuns falling into a state of frenzy in which the afflicted foamed at the mouth, screamed and convulsed, sexually propositioned priests, and confessed to having carnal relations with devils or Christ. Although, today, these cases would suggest serious mental illness; at the time, these events were routinely explained as possession by devilish forces (Waller, 2009a). Similarly, grievous fits by young girls are believed to have precipitated the witch panic in New England late in the 17th century (Demos, 1983). Such beliefs in supernatural causes of mental illness are still held in some societies today; for example, beliefs that supernatural forces cause mental illness are common in some cultures in modern-day Nigeria (Aghukwa, 2012).\r\n<figure><\/figure>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Dig Deeper: Dancing Mania<\/h3>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4477\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"183\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03043631\/d5035a823dc0c885913bd6135114afab.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4477\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03043631\/d5035a823dc0c885913bd6135114afab.jpg\" alt=\"Bosch painting depicting a man boring a hole in the top of the skull of a seated man, attempting to extract his &quot;madness&quot;\" width=\"183\" height=\"280\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. In The Extraction of the Stone of Madness, a 15th century painting by Hieronymus Bosch, a practitioner is using a tool to extract an object (the supposed \u201cstone of madness\u201d) from the head of an afflicted person.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBetween the 11th and 17th centuries, a curious epidemic swept across Western Europe. Groups of people would suddenly begin to dance with wild abandon. This compulsion to dance\u2014referred to as dancing mania\u2014sometimes gripped thousands of people at a time (Figure 2). Historical accounts indicate that those afflicted would sometimes dance with bruised and bloody feet for days or weeks, screaming of terrible visions and begging priests and monks to save their souls (Waller, 2009b). What caused dancing mania is not known, but several explanations have been proposed, including spider venom and ergot poisoning (\u201cDancing Mania,\u201d 2011).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"401\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225107\/CNX_Psych_15_03_Mania.jpg\" alt=\"A painting shows a group of pilgrims dancing in a way that appears inconsistent and aimless.\" width=\"401\" height=\"203\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Although the cause of dancing mania, depicted in this painting, was unclear, the behavior was attributed to supernatural forces.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nHistorian John Waller (2009a, 2009b) has provided a comprehensive and convincing explanation of dancing mania that suggests the phenomenon was attributable to a combination of three factors: psychological distress, social contagion, and belief in supernatural forces. Waller argued that various disasters of the time (such as famine, plagues, and floods) produced high levels of psychological distress that could increase the likelihood of succumbing to an involuntary trance state. Waller indicated that anthropological studies and accounts of possession rituals show that people are more likely to enter a trance state if they expect it to happen, and that entranced individuals behave in a ritualistic manner, their thoughts and behavior shaped by the spiritual beliefs of their culture. Thus, during periods of extreme physical and mental distress, all it took were a few people\u2014believing themselves to have been afflicted with a dancing curse\u2014to slip into a spontaneous trance and then act out the part of one who is cursed by dancing for days on end.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<h2>Biological Perspectives of Psychological Disorders<\/h2>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">The biological perspective views psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena, such as genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities; it has gained considerable attention and acceptance in recent decades (Wyatt &amp; Midkiff, 2006). Evidence from many sources indicates that most psychological disorders have a genetic component; in fact, there is little dispute that some disorders are largely due to genetic factors. The graph in figure 3\u00a0shows heritability estimates for schizophrenia.<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6579\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/10144305\/26ed5e554697f02332a68b8cbcc6eddbe219160c.jpeg\"><img class=\"wp-image-6579 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/10144305\/26ed5e554697f02332a68b8cbcc6eddbe219160c.jpeg\" alt=\"A bar graph has an x-axis labeled \u201cPercent risk of developing schizophrenia\u201d and a y-axis labeled \u201crelationship to person with schizophrenia.\u201d A series of relationships are correlated with the percentage risk, shown with brackets indicating the generic relationship. The general population has a 1% risk. First cousins have 2% risk; they share 12.5% of genes. The next relationships are uncles\/aunts, nephews\/nieces, grandchildren, and half-siblings; they share 25% of genes and the risk ranges from about 3\u20136%. The next relationships are parents, siblings, children, and fraternal twins; they share 50% of genes and the risks are about 6, 9, 13, and 17%, respectively. Identical twins share 100% of genes and have about a 48% risk.\" width=\"975\" height=\"470\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. A person\u2019s risk of developing schizophrenia increases if a relative has schizophrenia. The closer the genetic relationship, the higher the risk.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<figure><\/figure>\r\nFindings such as these have led many of today\u2019s researchers to search for specific genes and genetic mutations that contribute to mental disorders. Also, sophisticated neural imaging technology in recent decades has revealed how abnormalities in brain structure and function might be directly involved in many disorders, and advances in our understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones have yielded insights into their possible connections. The biological perspective is currently thriving in the study of psychological disorders.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2779\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-2779 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5351\/2020\/08\/01135544\/water-5094839_1920-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Water bucket overflowing with water.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. A metaphor to understand the diathesis-stress model is that of a bucket. Buckets may be of varying sizes and come with different amounts of material already inside, and stressors that cause the water to overflow may trigger a mental disorder in someone who is vulnerable.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Diathesis-Stress Model of Psychological Disorders<\/h2>\r\nDespite advances in understanding the biological basis of psychological disorders, the psychosocial perspective is still very important. This perspective emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors. Perhaps the best way to think about psychological disorders, then, is to view them as originating from a combination of biological and psychological processes. Many develop not from a single cause, but from a delicate fusion between partly biological and partly psychosocial factors.\r\n\r\nThe <strong>diathesis-stress model<\/strong> (Zuckerman, 1999) integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may be psychological (e.g., a tendency to think about life events in a pessimistic, self-defeating way).\r\n\r\nThe key assumption of the diathesis-stress model is that both factors, diathesis and stress, are necessary in the development of a disorder. Different models explore the relationship between the two factors: the level of stress needed to produce the disorder is inversely proportional to the level of diathesis.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/35f37805-490b-458c-9241-8b5193b29c52\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/c70d3d97-cee4-4b0a-a3be-099b741e27e8\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/171fd262-b4e1-45cb-9fd4-a85e8d2e30d1\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Even today, some believe that certain occurrences have supernatural causes. Think of an event, recent or historical, for which others have provided a supernatural explanation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>diathesis-stress model:\u00a0<\/strong>suggests that people with a predisposition for a disorder (a diathesis) are more likely to develop the disorder when faced with stress; model of psychopathology<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>supernatural:\u00a0<\/strong>describes a force beyond scientific understanding<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>","rendered":"<div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss historical and supernatural perspectives as well as modern biological and social perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Supernatural Perspectives of Psychological Disorders<\/h2>\n<p>For centuries, psychological disorders were viewed from a supernatural perspective: attributed to a force beyond scientific understanding. Those afflicted were thought to be practitioners of black magic or possessed by spirits (Figure 1) (Maher &amp; Maher, 1985). For example, convents throughout Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries reported hundreds of nuns falling into a state of frenzy in which the afflicted foamed at the mouth, screamed and convulsed, sexually propositioned priests, and confessed to having carnal relations with devils or Christ. Although, today, these cases would suggest serious mental illness; at the time, these events were routinely explained as possession by devilish forces (Waller, 2009a). Similarly, grievous fits by young girls are believed to have precipitated the witch panic in New England late in the 17th century (Demos, 1983). Such beliefs in supernatural causes of mental illness are still held in some societies today; for example, beliefs that supernatural forces cause mental illness are common in some cultures in modern-day Nigeria (Aghukwa, 2012).<\/p>\n<figure><\/figure>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Dig Deeper: Dancing Mania<\/h3>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div id=\"attachment_4477\" style=\"width: 193px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03043631\/d5035a823dc0c885913bd6135114afab.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4477\" class=\"wp-image-4477\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03043631\/d5035a823dc0c885913bd6135114afab.jpg\" alt=\"Bosch painting depicting a man boring a hole in the top of the skull of a seated man, attempting to extract his &quot;madness&quot;\" width=\"183\" height=\"280\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4477\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. In The Extraction of the Stone of Madness, a 15th century painting by Hieronymus Bosch, a practitioner is using a tool to extract an object (the supposed \u201cstone of madness\u201d) from the head of an afflicted person.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Between the 11th and 17th centuries, a curious epidemic swept across Western Europe. Groups of people would suddenly begin to dance with wild abandon. This compulsion to dance\u2014referred to as dancing mania\u2014sometimes gripped thousands of people at a time (Figure 2). Historical accounts indicate that those afflicted would sometimes dance with bruised and bloody feet for days or weeks, screaming of terrible visions and begging priests and monks to save their souls (Waller, 2009b). What caused dancing mania is not known, but several explanations have been proposed, including spider venom and ergot poisoning (\u201cDancing Mania,\u201d 2011).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 411px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23225107\/CNX_Psych_15_03_Mania.jpg\" alt=\"A painting shows a group of pilgrims dancing in a way that appears inconsistent and aimless.\" width=\"401\" height=\"203\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Although the cause of dancing mania, depicted in this painting, was unclear, the behavior was attributed to supernatural forces.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Historian John Waller (2009a, 2009b) has provided a comprehensive and convincing explanation of dancing mania that suggests the phenomenon was attributable to a combination of three factors: psychological distress, social contagion, and belief in supernatural forces. Waller argued that various disasters of the time (such as famine, plagues, and floods) produced high levels of psychological distress that could increase the likelihood of succumbing to an involuntary trance state. Waller indicated that anthropological studies and accounts of possession rituals show that people are more likely to enter a trance state if they expect it to happen, and that entranced individuals behave in a ritualistic manner, their thoughts and behavior shaped by the spiritual beliefs of their culture. Thus, during periods of extreme physical and mental distress, all it took were a few people\u2014believing themselves to have been afflicted with a dancing curse\u2014to slip into a spontaneous trance and then act out the part of one who is cursed by dancing for days on end.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Biological Perspectives of Psychological Disorders<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">The biological perspective views psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena, such as genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities; it has gained considerable attention and acceptance in recent decades (Wyatt &amp; Midkiff, 2006). Evidence from many sources indicates that most psychological disorders have a genetic component; in fact, there is little dispute that some disorders are largely due to genetic factors. The graph in figure 3\u00a0shows heritability estimates for schizophrenia.<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div id=\"attachment_6579\" style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/10144305\/26ed5e554697f02332a68b8cbcc6eddbe219160c.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6579\" class=\"wp-image-6579 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/10144305\/26ed5e554697f02332a68b8cbcc6eddbe219160c.jpeg\" alt=\"A bar graph has an x-axis labeled \u201cPercent risk of developing schizophrenia\u201d and a y-axis labeled \u201crelationship to person with schizophrenia.\u201d A series of relationships are correlated with the percentage risk, shown with brackets indicating the generic relationship. The general population has a 1% risk. First cousins have 2% risk; they share 12.5% of genes. The next relationships are uncles\/aunts, nephews\/nieces, grandchildren, and half-siblings; they share 25% of genes and the risk ranges from about 3\u20136%. The next relationships are parents, siblings, children, and fraternal twins; they share 50% of genes and the risks are about 6, 9, 13, and 17%, respectively. Identical twins share 100% of genes and have about a 48% risk.\" width=\"975\" height=\"470\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6579\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. A person\u2019s risk of developing schizophrenia increases if a relative has schizophrenia. The closer the genetic relationship, the higher the risk.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<figure><\/figure>\n<p>Findings such as these have led many of today\u2019s researchers to search for specific genes and genetic mutations that contribute to mental disorders. Also, sophisticated neural imaging technology in recent decades has revealed how abnormalities in brain structure and function might be directly involved in many disorders, and advances in our understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones have yielded insights into their possible connections. The biological perspective is currently thriving in the study of psychological disorders.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_2779\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2779\" class=\"wp-image-2779 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/5351\/2020\/08\/01135544\/water-5094839_1920-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Water bucket overflowing with water.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2779\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. A metaphor to understand the diathesis-stress model is that of a bucket. Buckets may be of varying sizes and come with different amounts of material already inside, and stressors that cause the water to overflow may trigger a mental disorder in someone who is vulnerable.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Diathesis-Stress Model of Psychological Disorders<\/h2>\n<p>Despite advances in understanding the biological basis of psychological disorders, the psychosocial perspective is still very important. This perspective emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors. Perhaps the best way to think about psychological disorders, then, is to view them as originating from a combination of biological and psychological processes. Many develop not from a single cause, but from a delicate fusion between partly biological and partly psychosocial factors.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>diathesis-stress model<\/strong> (Zuckerman, 1999) integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may be psychological (e.g., a tendency to think about life events in a pessimistic, self-defeating way).<\/p>\n<p>The key assumption of the diathesis-stress model is that both factors, diathesis and stress, are necessary in the development of a disorder. Different models explore the relationship between the two factors: the level of stress needed to produce the disorder is inversely proportional to the level of diathesis.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_35f37805-490b-458c-9241-8b5193b29c52\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/35f37805-490b-458c-9241-8b5193b29c52?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_35f37805-490b-458c-9241-8b5193b29c52\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_c70d3d97-cee4-4b0a-a3be-099b741e27e8\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/c70d3d97-cee4-4b0a-a3be-099b741e27e8?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_c70d3d97-cee4-4b0a-a3be-099b741e27e8\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_171fd262-b4e1-45cb-9fd4-a85e8d2e30d1\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/171fd262-b4e1-45cb-9fd4-a85e8d2e30d1?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_171fd262-b4e1-45cb-9fd4-a85e8d2e30d1\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Even today, some believe that certain occurrences have supernatural causes. Think of an event, recent or historical, for which others have provided a supernatural explanation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>diathesis-stress model:\u00a0<\/strong>suggests that people with a predisposition for a disorder (a diathesis) are more likely to develop the disorder when faced with stress; model of psychopathology<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>supernatural:\u00a0<\/strong>describes a force beyond scientific understanding<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-356\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Perspectives on Psychological Disorders. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/15-3-perspectives-on-psychological-disorders\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/15-3-perspectives-on-psychological-disorders<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>water bucket. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: dhito. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/water-buckets-chocolates-chairs-5094839\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/water-buckets-chocolates-chairs-5094839\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":5797,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Perspectives on Psychological Disorders\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/15-3-perspectives-on-psychological-disorders\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"water 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