{"id":3918,"date":"2017-03-11T16:31:41","date_gmt":"2017-03-11T16:31:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=3918"},"modified":"2024-05-17T15:00:10","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T15:00:10","slug":"childhood-emotional-and-social-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/childhood-emotional-and-social-development\/","title":{"raw":"Childhood: Emotional and Social Development","rendered":"Childhood: Emotional and Social Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood, including attachment, the development of a self-concept, and parenting styles<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\"><\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Attachment<\/h2>\r\nPsychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings. In social and emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important and is the major social milestone of infancy. <strong>Attachment<\/strong> is a long-standing connection or bond with others. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What accounts for children\u2019s attachment differences?\r\n\r\nResearchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be feed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their nourishment. However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nHarlow\u2019s studies of monkeys were performed before modern ethics guidelines were in place, and today his experiments are widely considered to be unethical and even cruel. Watch this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">video to see actual footage of Harlow\u2019s monkey studies.<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nBuilding on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (1988). A <strong>secure base<\/strong> is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child\u2019s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure 4).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6872\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"386\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/03\/03191702\/b264621e863ce1b7a80d3858e981efbecdf548c2.jpeg\"><img class=\" wp-image-6872\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/03\/03191702\/b264621e863ce1b7a80d3858e981efbecdf548c2.jpeg\" alt=\"A man holds a baby in the air.\" width=\"386\" height=\"265\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the parent-infant bond. (credit: \"balouriarajesh_Pixabay\"\/Pixabay)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nWhile Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth\u2019s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment between mothers and their infants (1970). In the Strange Situation, the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns to comfort her child.\r\n\r\nBased on how the infants\/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). The most common type of attachment\u2014also considered the healthiest\u2014is called <strong>secure attachment<\/strong> (Figure 5). In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"488\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Secure.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" width=\"488\" height=\"365\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing him to securely explore his environment. (credit: Kerry Ceszyk)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nWith <strong>avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant)<\/strong>, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &amp; Wall, 1978).\r\n\r\nIn cases of <strong>resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent\/resistant)<\/strong>, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure\u2019s attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers\u2019 inconsistent level of response to their child.\r\n\r\nFinally, children with <strong>disorganized attachment<\/strong> behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child\u2019s ability to regulate their emotions.\r\n\r\nWhile Ainsworth\u2019s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child\u2019s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth\u2019s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, &amp; Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn &amp; Sagi-Schwartz, 2008).\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to view a clip of the Strange Situation. Try to identify which type of attachment baby Lisa exhibits.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793489&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=QTsewNrHUHU&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-1dfiozoz-QTsewNrHUHU\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/TheStrangeSituationMaryAinsworth.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/1207f4cf-4d55-459a-81f0-f7e42ed96b2d\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/3d147672-7812-4552-a42c-08246524786d\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/09405cb5-3478-4cd5-8727-02a7dff73ddc\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/fe0a0ead-d54f-4203-9e3a-ebdc6d2d93c8\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e5b7e7ac-97e2-4b32-9d6a-6bc94f54d3e7\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/80123b6a-c664-4a99-a5a0-18c5190c679b\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Self-Concept<\/h2>\r\nJust as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants don\u2019t have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children\u2019s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24\u201336 months old children can name and\/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.\r\n\r\nChildren from 2\u20134 years old display a great increase in social behavior once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions. Also, through play children explore and come to understand their gender roles and can label themselves as a girl or boy (Chick, Heilman-Houser, &amp; Hunter, 2002). By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: \u201cI\u2019m a first grader!\u201d School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson\u2019s task of industry versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. For example, 10-year-old Layla says, \u201cI\u2019m kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa.\u201d\r\n\r\nDevelopment of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer &amp; Fugate, 2003). Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson\u2019s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson\u2019s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968).\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>dig deeper<\/h3>\r\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\r\nKenneth and Mamie Clark were pioneering psychologists responsible for the first psychological study used in a Supreme Court case. Their research with African American children and doll choices was used to highlight the harmful effects of segregation and provided support for the Browns and the NAACP in their lawsuit against the Board of Education. The finding that African American children were more likely to choose a white doll over a black doll, in both northern and southern states, led them to theorize that the children did not have a healthy concept of themselves (Clark &amp; Clark, 1950).\r\n\r\nThe Clarks\u2019 research differed from that of Inez Beverly Prosser, who also studied African American children in segregated and integrated schools in Cincinnati. Parents could choose either environment for their children during the 1930s. She found, among other factors, that the self-concept of children at segregated schools was more positive versus those in integrated schools, partly due to teachers\u2019 low expectations. Prosser also noted that the child\u2019s personality should be considered when choosing a segregated school or an integrated school (Benjamin, Henry, &amp; McMahon, 2005).\r\n\r\nLater researchers suggested that African American children choosing a doll that did not look like them was not an indication of their self-esteem or their self-image. For instance, Rogers and Meltzoff (2017) found that gender identity was more important than race in their study of diverse children whose average age was about 10 years old. Thus, for children that young, the meaning of race is an evolving process, as opposed to adolescents\u2019 search for identity. The BIPOC children in the study did view racial identity as important, compared to their white counterparts.\r\n\r\nFor teenagers who are members of marginalized groups, racial\/ethnic\/cultural identity can be paramount, depending on the family\u2019s processes. Racial socialization involves teaching them the positive aspects of their in-group, usually by caregivers. Most of the students in a study by Neblett, Smalls, Ford, Nguyen, and Sellers (2009) reported having received such messages but a few received no racial socialization messages. They found that these messages played a role in how they felt about their in-group.\r\n\r\nSome theories have been developed to explain the behaviors of marginalized youth. One such theory is the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), put forth by Margaret Beale Spencer. It is a merging of phenomenology and Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems theory. A phenomenological approach is based on how a person makes meaning of their experiences. For example, young Black American boys have different experiences in educational settings compared to Black American girls. Consequently, the meaning they assign to those experiences differs. Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems theory suggests that development occurs based on interactions among environments such as school, family, and community (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).\r\n\r\nThe research that Spencer, Dupree, and Hartmann (1997) conducted with Black adolescent boys and girls was explained by PVEST. They found that negative learning attitudes were predicted by unpopularity with peers for girls and boys. Additionally, for boys, more stress predicted a less negative attitude toward learning, possibly due to focus on the school environment instead of on personal issues. This occurred along with perceiving that teachers had positive expectations of Black boys. The researchers surmised that PVEST accounted for how others\u2019 perceptions and their subsequent attitudes were related and worked both ways.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhat can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991) thinks parenting style may be a factor. The way we parent is an important factor in a child\u2019s socioemotional growth. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. With the <strong>authoritative<\/strong> <strong>style<\/strong>, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child\u2019s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases\u2014for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture and, as Small (1999) points out, the authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures.\r\n\r\nIn <strong>authoritarian style<\/strong>, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, &amp; Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010).\r\n\r\nFor parents who employ the <strong>permissive style<\/strong> of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all\u2014instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly, children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, &amp; Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr &amp; Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, &amp; Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999).\r\n\r\nWith the <strong>uninvolved style<\/strong> of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents\u2019 extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child\u2019s basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999).\r\n\r\nAs you can see, parenting styles influence childhood adjustment, but could a child\u2019s temperament likewise influence parenting? <strong>Temperament<\/strong> refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it\u2019s possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson &amp; Rothbart, 1995).\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\r\nWatch this optional lecture on child development from MIT's John Gabrieli for an interesting overview of key physical, social, and emotional developmental\u00a0stages of\u00a0childhood.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/yBYebcVw8Zk?list=PL44ABC9278E2EE706\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/Lec17MIT900SCIntroductiontoPsychologySpring2011.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Lec 17 | MIT 9.00SC Introduction to Psychology, Spring 2011\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/35fe5d10-2983-4286-8af1-0942f1b51306\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/dd2c2ecf-3681-4427-9539-f8fedba9812e\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/706ee604-a68b-42eb-86ab-f580d759b8a5\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\nWhich parenting style describes how you were raised? Provide an example or two to support your answer.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>long-standing connection or bond with others<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritarian parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritative parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child\u2019s point of view<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>avoidant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by child\u2019s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>disorganized attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>permissive parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents make few demands and rarely use punishment<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>resistant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure base:\u00a0<\/strong>parental presence that gives the infant\/toddler a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>temperament:\u00a0<\/strong>innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>uninvolved parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood, including attachment, the development of a self-concept, and parenting styles<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<section data-depth=\"2\"><\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Attachment<\/h2>\n<p>Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings. In social and emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important and is the major social milestone of infancy. <strong>Attachment<\/strong> is a long-standing connection or bond with others. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What accounts for children\u2019s attachment differences?<\/p>\n<p>Researchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be feed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their nourishment. However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Harlow\u2019s studies of monkeys were performed before modern ethics guidelines were in place, and today his experiments are widely considered to be unethical and even cruel. Watch this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">video to see actual footage of Harlow\u2019s monkey studies.<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Building on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (1988). A <strong>secure base<\/strong> is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child\u2019s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure 4).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_6872\" style=\"width: 396px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/03\/03191702\/b264621e863ce1b7a80d3858e981efbecdf548c2.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6872\" class=\"wp-image-6872\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/03\/03191702\/b264621e863ce1b7a80d3858e981efbecdf548c2.jpeg\" alt=\"A man holds a baby in the air.\" width=\"386\" height=\"265\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6872\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the parent-infant bond. (credit: &#8220;balouriarajesh_Pixabay&#8221;\/Pixabay)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth\u2019s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment between mothers and their infants (1970). In the Strange Situation, the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns to comfort her child.<\/p>\n<p>Based on how the infants\/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). The most common type of attachment\u2014also considered the healthiest\u2014is called <strong>secure attachment<\/strong> (Figure 5). In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 498px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Secure.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" width=\"488\" height=\"365\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing him to securely explore his environment. (credit: Kerry Ceszyk)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>With <strong>avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant)<\/strong>, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &amp; Wall, 1978).<\/p>\n<p>In cases of <strong>resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent\/resistant)<\/strong>, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure\u2019s attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers\u2019 inconsistent level of response to their child.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, children with <strong>disorganized attachment<\/strong> behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child\u2019s ability to regulate their emotions.<\/p>\n<p>While Ainsworth\u2019s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child\u2019s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth\u2019s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, &amp; Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn &amp; Sagi-Schwartz, 2008).<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to view a clip of the Strange Situation. Try to identify which type of attachment baby Lisa exhibits.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793489&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=QTsewNrHUHU&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-1dfiozoz-QTsewNrHUHU\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/TheStrangeSituationMaryAinsworth.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;The Strange Situation &#8211; Mary Ainsworth&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_1207f4cf-4d55-459a-81f0-f7e42ed96b2d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/1207f4cf-4d55-459a-81f0-f7e42ed96b2d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_1207f4cf-4d55-459a-81f0-f7e42ed96b2d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_3d147672-7812-4552-a42c-08246524786d\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/3d147672-7812-4552-a42c-08246524786d?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_3d147672-7812-4552-a42c-08246524786d\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_09405cb5-3478-4cd5-8727-02a7dff73ddc\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/09405cb5-3478-4cd5-8727-02a7dff73ddc?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_09405cb5-3478-4cd5-8727-02a7dff73ddc\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_fe0a0ead-d54f-4203-9e3a-ebdc6d2d93c8\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/fe0a0ead-d54f-4203-9e3a-ebdc6d2d93c8?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_fe0a0ead-d54f-4203-9e3a-ebdc6d2d93c8\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_e5b7e7ac-97e2-4b32-9d6a-6bc94f54d3e7\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e5b7e7ac-97e2-4b32-9d6a-6bc94f54d3e7?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_e5b7e7ac-97e2-4b32-9d6a-6bc94f54d3e7\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_80123b6a-c664-4a99-a5a0-18c5190c679b\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/80123b6a-c664-4a99-a5a0-18c5190c679b?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_80123b6a-c664-4a99-a5a0-18c5190c679b\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Self-Concept<\/h2>\n<p>Just as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants don\u2019t have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children\u2019s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24\u201336 months old children can name and\/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.<\/p>\n<p>Children from 2\u20134 years old display a great increase in social behavior once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions. Also, through play children explore and come to understand their gender roles and can label themselves as a girl or boy (Chick, Heilman-Houser, &amp; Hunter, 2002). By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: \u201cI\u2019m a first grader!\u201d School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson\u2019s task of industry versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. For example, 10-year-old Layla says, \u201cI\u2019m kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Development of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer &amp; Fugate, 2003). Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson\u2019s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson\u2019s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>dig deeper<\/h3>\n<h2><span style=\"color: #000000;\"><strong>Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST)<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Kenneth and Mamie Clark were pioneering psychologists responsible for the first psychological study used in a Supreme Court case. Their research with African American children and doll choices was used to highlight the harmful effects of segregation and provided support for the Browns and the NAACP in their lawsuit against the Board of Education. The finding that African American children were more likely to choose a white doll over a black doll, in both northern and southern states, led them to theorize that the children did not have a healthy concept of themselves (Clark &amp; Clark, 1950).<\/p>\n<p>The Clarks\u2019 research differed from that of Inez Beverly Prosser, who also studied African American children in segregated and integrated schools in Cincinnati. Parents could choose either environment for their children during the 1930s. She found, among other factors, that the self-concept of children at segregated schools was more positive versus those in integrated schools, partly due to teachers\u2019 low expectations. Prosser also noted that the child\u2019s personality should be considered when choosing a segregated school or an integrated school (Benjamin, Henry, &amp; McMahon, 2005).<\/p>\n<p>Later researchers suggested that African American children choosing a doll that did not look like them was not an indication of their self-esteem or their self-image. For instance, Rogers and Meltzoff (2017) found that gender identity was more important than race in their study of diverse children whose average age was about 10 years old. Thus, for children that young, the meaning of race is an evolving process, as opposed to adolescents\u2019 search for identity. The BIPOC children in the study did view racial identity as important, compared to their white counterparts.<\/p>\n<p>For teenagers who are members of marginalized groups, racial\/ethnic\/cultural identity can be paramount, depending on the family\u2019s processes. Racial socialization involves teaching them the positive aspects of their in-group, usually by caregivers. Most of the students in a study by Neblett, Smalls, Ford, Nguyen, and Sellers (2009) reported having received such messages but a few received no racial socialization messages. They found that these messages played a role in how they felt about their in-group.<\/p>\n<p>Some theories have been developed to explain the behaviors of marginalized youth. One such theory is the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), put forth by Margaret Beale Spencer. It is a merging of phenomenology and Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems theory. A phenomenological approach is based on how a person makes meaning of their experiences. For example, young Black American boys have different experiences in educational settings compared to Black American girls. Consequently, the meaning they assign to those experiences differs. Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological systems theory suggests that development occurs based on interactions among environments such as school, family, and community (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).<\/p>\n<p>The research that Spencer, Dupree, and Hartmann (1997) conducted with Black adolescent boys and girls was explained by PVEST. They found that negative learning attitudes were predicted by unpopularity with peers for girls and boys. Additionally, for boys, more stress predicted a less negative attitude toward learning, possibly due to focus on the school environment instead of on personal issues. This occurred along with perceiving that teachers had positive expectations of Black boys. The researchers surmised that PVEST accounted for how others\u2019 perceptions and their subsequent attitudes were related and worked both ways.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>What can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991) thinks parenting style may be a factor. The way we parent is an important factor in a child\u2019s socioemotional growth. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. With the <strong>authoritative<\/strong> <strong>style<\/strong>, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child\u2019s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases\u2014for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture and, as Small (1999) points out, the authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures.<\/p>\n<p>In <strong>authoritarian style<\/strong>, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, &amp; Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010).<\/p>\n<p>For parents who employ the <strong>permissive style<\/strong> of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all\u2014instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly, children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, &amp; Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr &amp; Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, &amp; Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999).<\/p>\n<p>With the <strong>uninvolved style<\/strong> of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents\u2019 extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child\u2019s basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999).<\/p>\n<p>As you can see, parenting styles influence childhood adjustment, but could a child\u2019s temperament likewise influence parenting? <strong>Temperament<\/strong> refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it\u2019s possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson &amp; Rothbart, 1995).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Watch It<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this optional lecture on child development from MIT&#8217;s John Gabrieli for an interesting overview of key physical, social, and emotional developmental\u00a0stages of\u00a0childhood.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/yBYebcVw8Zk?list=PL44ABC9278E2EE706\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>You can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/Lec17MIT900SCIntroductiontoPsychologySpring2011.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Lec 17 | MIT 9.00SC Introduction to Psychology, Spring 2011&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_35fe5d10-2983-4286-8af1-0942f1b51306\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/35fe5d10-2983-4286-8af1-0942f1b51306?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_35fe5d10-2983-4286-8af1-0942f1b51306\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_dd2c2ecf-3681-4427-9539-f8fedba9812e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/dd2c2ecf-3681-4427-9539-f8fedba9812e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_dd2c2ecf-3681-4427-9539-f8fedba9812e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_706ee604-a68b-42eb-86ab-f580d759b8a5\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/706ee604-a68b-42eb-86ab-f580d759b8a5?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_706ee604-a68b-42eb-86ab-f580d759b8a5\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<p>Which parenting style describes how you were raised? Provide an example or two to support your answer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>long-standing connection or bond with others<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritarian parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritative parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child\u2019s point of view<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>avoidant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by child\u2019s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>disorganized attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>permissive parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents make few demands and rarely use punishment<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>resistant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure base:\u00a0<\/strong>parental presence that gives the infant\/toddler a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>temperament:\u00a0<\/strong>innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>uninvolved parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-3918\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: thibs44. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Stages of Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development\">https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":11,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth\",\"author\":\"thibs44\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Stages of Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"440aab99-45ed-464d-992c-08c3d744bb57, d9965c43-0820-4e62-be4e-80da0f24d906","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-3918","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":518,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":21,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8278,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918\/revisions\/8278"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/518"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3918"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=3918"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=3918"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=3918"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}