{"id":4543,"date":"2017-05-11T15:34:57","date_gmt":"2017-05-11T15:34:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=4543"},"modified":"2024-05-17T15:08:39","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T15:08:39","slug":"psych-in-real-life-growth-mindsets","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/psych-in-real-life-growth-mindsets\/","title":{"raw":"Psych in Real Life: Growth Mindsets","rendered":"Psych in Real Life: Growth Mindsets"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain how different praise and mindsets can lead to different levels of performance<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>How Mindset Influences Performance<\/h2>\r\nImagine that you are a parent and your child has just brought home a report card from 4th grade that is really good. You look it over and feel proud of your son or daughter. \u00a0With a wide grin on your face, you turn to your child and say:\r\n\r\n\u201cI\u2019m so proud of you! This report card is great! You __________\u201d\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>are so smart!<\/li>\r\n \t<li>must have worked so hard!<\/li>\r\n \t<li>have some jelly on your nose!<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWe hope you didn\u2019t choose the jelly statement. Between the other two options, which one would you be more likely to blurt out?\r\n\r\nIt turns out that your choice could matter.\r\n\r\nCarol Dweck, who is now a Professor of Psychology at Stanford University, has been studying factors that promote or interfere with achievement since the 1970s. Over this time, and especially since the mid-1990s, she came to realize that our ways of dealing with the world and particularly our behaviors in trying to achieve our own goals are influenced by what she calls \u201cself-theories\u201d: beliefs we have about our own abilities, strengths and weaknesses, and potential. These self-theories affect decisions we make about what is possible or sensible or reasonable to do in order to achieve our goals.\r\n\r\nBefore we discuss Carol Dweck\u2019s work, please answer a few questions about your own beliefs. Try to answer based on your real ways of thinking. The questions are a bit repetitive, but answer each one without regard to your previous answers.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.proprofs.com\/quiz-school\/personality\/quizshow.php?title=mindset-quiz_3YA&amp;q=1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Take the\u00a0 8-question Mindset Quiz here<\/a>\u00a0or <a href=\"http:\/\/community.mindsetworks.com\/what-s-my-mindset?view=quiz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">take the 8-question Mindset Quiz here<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4763\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04024500\/13584535514_db32745625_k.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4763 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04024500\/13584535514_db32745625_k-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Teacher looks on as two fourth-grade students work on assignments.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Those with a growth mindset are optimistic about how the environment, experiences, and attitudes can influence intelligence.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDr. Dweck and her colleagues have used questions like the ones you just answered to sort people into groups based on their beliefs about intelligence (and other abilities and skills). She has found that people tend to adopt one of two general sets of beliefs about intelligence. People with a <strong>fixed mindset<\/strong>\u00a0tend to think of intelligence as an \u201centity\u201d\u2014something that is part of a person\u2019s essential self. According to people with this belief, intelligence does not change much regardless of what we do or what we experience. Other people have a <strong>growth mindset<\/strong>, and they tend to think of intelligence as being \u201cincremental\u201d\u2014a quality that can change for better or worse depending on what we do and on the experiences we have. Some people are strongly committed to one or the other end of the fixed vs. growth mindset scale, while others fall in-between to varying degrees.\r\n<h2>Study 1: \u00a0Mueller &amp; Dweck (1998)<\/h2>\r\nIf Dweck is right, our mindset has a big impact on how well we achieve our potential\u2014in school and in many other areas of our lives (for example, in sports, music, and business). But where do these different mindsets come from?\r\n\r\nThere can be many reasons that a person comes to believe that intelligence is fixed or changeable, but one obvious influence on our way of thinking about ourselves is the messages we hear from adults as we grow up. Dweck and her then-graduate student Claudia Mueller wanted to see if they could influence the mindset of children, if only for a brief period of time, by giving different kinds of praise to the children. Their starting point was the unsurprising and well-established idea that praise is motivating. When we do something and receive praise, we are more likely to want to do that same thing again. But Mueller and Dweck wondered if all praise is equal. In particular, is it possible that certain types of praise that well-meaning parents and teachers often use could actually reduce a child\u2019s motivation to learn and that child\u2019s resiliency when they encounter challenges?\r\n\r\nThe researchers recruited 128 fifth graders (70 girls and 58 boys ranging in age from 10 to 12) to participate in their study. Before we go into the details of the first experiment, please get a feel for the task that the children had to perform.\r\n\r\nYou will have one minute to solve as many of the problems below as you can.[footnote]Questions used with permission from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.smart-kit.com\/scategory\/brain-teasers\/iq-test-questions\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.smart-kit.com\/scategory\/brain-teasers\/iq-test-questions\/<\/a>[\/footnote] For each problem, you will see a set of patterns arranged in a 3x3 matrix. Each matrix has one item missing, and your task is to figure out what the missing item is based on the changing patterns in the rows, columns, and diagonals.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nBefore we start, here is one practice item. The 3x3 matrix is at the top and the pattern on the lower right is missing. Figure out which one of the eight patterns on the bottom, labeled 1 to 8, is the missing pattern.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144140\/practiceq.png\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-4545 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144140\/practiceq.png\" alt=\"A sample question from an IQ test, showing three sets of a 3x3 grid with stars in certain squares, with the last square missing. Imagine the grid is labeled 1-9, beginning in the top left. In the first image, there are stars in 1 and 8; the next has a star in 5; the next has stars in 1, 5, and 8; the next has stars in 3 and 7; the next has stars in 1 and 9; the next has stars in 1,3,7, and 9; the next has stars in 2 and 8, and the last has stars in 4 and 6. Which image should come next? \" width=\"472\" height=\"524\" \/><\/a>\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"491551\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"491551\"]The correct answer is pattern #7. The pattern on the right in each row combines the dots from the other two patterns in that row.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nNow you will have ONE MINUTE to solve as many of the problems below as possible.\r\n\r\n<center><iframe id=\"twine\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/mindset\/test\/mindset_test.html\" width=\"100%\" height=\"500px\" scrolling=\"no\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/center>Now that you've taken the test, how much would you like to try some more of these questions?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Not at all<\/li>\r\n \t<li>1<\/li>\r\n \t<li>2<\/li>\r\n \t<li>3<\/li>\r\n \t<li>4<\/li>\r\n \t<li>5<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Very much<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nHow much did you enjoy working on these problems?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Not at all<\/li>\r\n \t<li>1<\/li>\r\n \t<li>2<\/li>\r\n \t<li>3<\/li>\r\n \t<li>4<\/li>\r\n \t<li>5<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Very much<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nHow well do you think you did on these problems overall?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Not very well<\/li>\r\n \t<li>1<\/li>\r\n \t<li>2<\/li>\r\n \t<li>3<\/li>\r\n \t<li>4<\/li>\r\n \t<li>5<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Very well<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIf we gave you some more problems, would you prefer some more like the easier practice problem or some more like the hardest test problem you tried?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Like the easier practice problem<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Like the hardest test problem<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe problem-solving task you just tried out is based on a widely used psychological test called the Raven\u2019s Progressive Matrices. Most people find the test to be challenging, requiring close attention to detail and careful logical thinking. Mueller and Dweck chose this task because it could be adapted to be relatively easy or extremely difficult by changing the complexity of the patterns required for the solution.\r\n\r\nThe experiment had three stages, each based around a different set of matrix problems like the ones you worked on. Each child was tested one-on-one in an otherwise empty classroom by a research assistant.\r\n<h3>Stage 1: Pretest, Treatment, and Assessment of Motivation<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Pretest<\/h4>\r\nThe children were given instructions and 10 problems that were fairly easy to solve. At the end of 4 minutes, they were stopped and the research assistant scored their answers. On average, the children attempted to answer 7.9 out of the 10 problems, and the mean number correct was 5.2.\r\n<h4>Treatment<\/h4>\r\nWhen you do something to manipulate an independent variable, that something you do (administer a pill, tell the participant something that might affect performance, etc.) is called a \u201ctreatment.\u201d In this case, the treatment was the feedback the child received about their performance on the progressive matrices task. This treatment involved a bit of deception because children received randomly assigned feedback. In other words, regardless of real performance, the children heard one of three statements depending on random assignment to a treatment condition.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">First, every child was told: \u201cWow, you did very well on these problems. You got _____ right. That\u2019s a really high score.\u201d The minimum number right that a child heard was 80%, which is obviously well above the actual average of 51%. If a child got more than 80% correct, the actual number correct was used.<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The next step was based on the treatment condition the child had been assigned to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some of the children were praised for their ABILITY: \u201cYou must be smart at these problems.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Other children were praised for their EFFORT: \u201cYou must have worked hard at these problems.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The remaining children were in the CONTROL condition. They did not receive any additional feedback, aside from the general praise shown above.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Assessment<\/h4>\r\nAfter receiving feedback and, for children in two of the conditions, additional praise, the children were asked a series of questions. The experimenters wanted to know if the success the children experienced in the first set of problems, along with the type of praise, influenced their choice of additional problems. They were told that they might get some more problems to solve and they were asked to choose the difficulty of those problems. There were several options, but the choice came down to this:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Give me easy problems: \u201cProblems that I\u2019m pretty good at, so I can show that I\u2019m smart.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Give me challenging problems: \u201cProblems that I\u2019ll learn a lot from, even if I won\u2019t look so smart.\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe children were then told that there might be some time at the end of the session to work on these problems they had chosen, but that the next problems they would work on had been determined before the experiment started. They were told this so they would not interpret the next problem set as being \u201ceasy\u201d or \u201cchallenging\u201d based on their selection.\r\n\r\nThe results showed that the children were genuinely influenced by the praise they had received. The figure below shows the percentage of children choosing EASY problems, broken down by treatment condition. The children who were praised for how smart they were (ability) were far more likely to choose easy problems than were the children praise for working hard (effort). The control condition, children who were told they did well but received no additional praise, were in the middle.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4551\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"368\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144717\/typeofpraisegraph.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4551 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144717\/typeofpraisegraph.png\" alt=\"Bar graph showing the percentage of students choosing easy problems. Of those who were praised on ability nearly 70% chose easy problems, 50% of the control condition chose easy problems, and less than 10% of those who were praised for effort chose the easy problems.\" width=\"368\" height=\"267\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. The type of praise given influenced the types of problems students wanted to tackle. This graph shows the number of students choosing easy problems after given praise.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/39586e67-1a69-459c-be11-23691ef26381\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Stage 2: Failure, Negative Feedback, and Consequences<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Failure<\/h4>\r\nNext, the children tried to solve a new set of 10 matrix problems and again they had 4 minutes. On the surface, these problems looked about the same as the first set, but they were considerably more difficult. After the 4-minute test period, the researchers scored the answers and, regardless of actual performance, they told the children that they had done poorly (\u201ca lot worse\u201d). No one was told that they had solved more than 50% correctly. In fact, this feedback was accurate. The results showed that the children found the problems difficult. On average, they attempted 5.8 of the 10 problems and correctly solved only 1.8 of them. There was no significant difference in the number of problems solved for the three groups (ability feedback, effort feedback, and no-feedback control).\r\n<h4>Consequences<\/h4>\r\nNow the experimenters wanted to know about the effect of \u201cfailure\u201d on the children\u2019s motivation (though the term \u201cfailure\u201d was never used with the children).\r\n\r\nImmediately after receiving feedback, the children were asked a series of questions:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much would you like to take these problems home to work on?\u201d [This was a measure of \u201ctask persistence\u201d]<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much did you like working on the first set of problems? How much did you enjoy working on the second set? How much fun were the problems? [These measured \u201ctask enjoyment\u201d]<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Using a somewhat complicated measure, the children were also asked to explain their difficulties with the second problem set by attributing failure to lack of ability or lack of effort. This was done in a way that they could explain their problems on the second set as partially due to low ability and partially to low effort.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Results<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much would you like to take these problems home?\u201d The children answered on a 1-to-6 scale, where higher numbers mean more interest in taking the problems home to practice.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4552\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"308\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145106\/praisegivenforhome.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4552 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145106\/praisegivenforhome.png\" alt=\"Bar graph showing the type of praise given and the feelings of the participants about how much they would like to take the problems home. A higher score means the participant was more interested in taking the problems home. Those praised for ability scored it just over a 3, while those in the control just over a 4, and those who were praised for effort, just under a 5.\" width=\"308\" height=\"264\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. How praise influenced students' desires to take the problems home. Statistical note: the Ability group was significantly lower than the other two. There was no significant difference between the Control and Effort groups.[\/caption]\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much fun were the problems?\u201d The children answered on a 1-to-6 scale, where higher numbers mean more enjoyment of the problems.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4553\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"336\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145455\/praiseandfun.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4553 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145455\/praiseandfun.png\" alt=\"On a scale of 1-6, students who were praised for ability rated the problems as a 4 for &quot;fun&quot;, while students in the control rated them at a 4.5, and students who were praised for effort rated them at a 5.\" width=\"336\" height=\"306\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. Tye type of praise given had a small, but noticeable, impact on how much students enjoyed the problems. Statistical note: all three groups were significantly different from each other.[\/caption]\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why did you perform poorly on this second set of problems? The children expressed their own explanation for their poor performance using a somewhat complicated procedure. It was not a simple ability vs. effort choice and they could apportion their failure partially to either cause (reference the original study for more details).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5055\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"664\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/29150742\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-26-at-1.55.05-PM1.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-5055\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/29150742\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-26-at-1.55.05-PM1.png\" alt=\"Two bar graphs. The first shows responses to the question &quot;How much was your failure due to low ability?&quot; The group that had been praised for ability answered high to this at 16, while the control group answered at 14 and the effort group responded at 10. The second bar graph shows responses to &quot;How much was your failure due to low effort? The ability group answered low (5), the control group at 11 and the effort group at 12.\" width=\"664\" height=\"253\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. When asked how much of their \"failure\" was due to low ability, those praised for ability were more likely to blame their own inability. When asked how much of their failure was due to low effort, those who were praised for ability did not blame their effort, rather their ability.[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Stage 3: Posttest<\/h3>\r\nFor the last stage of the experiment, the children were given a new set of problems that was similar in difficulty to the first set. The problems were moderately difficult, and the children had 4 minutes to solve as many as possible. The figure below shows the change in the average number of problems between the pretest (Stage 1) and the posttest (Stage 3).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Instructions:<\/strong> Click and drag the circles on the right (Posttest) to where you think they should be to reflect the results of the experiment. When you're done, click the link below to see the actual results.\r\n\r\n<center><iframe src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/mindset\/linegraph2.html\" width=\"680\" height=\"450\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/center>[reveal-answer q=\"47435\"]Click here to see the results.[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"47435\"]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4555\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"406\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11150500\/changes.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4555 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11150500\/changes.png\" alt=\"Line graph shows the number of problems solved in the pretest compared with the number of problems solved in the posttest. The control group solved about the same amount of problems in the pretest as in the posttest, roughly 5.25. The group praised for effort solved about 5 problems in the pretest, but nearly 6.5 problems in the posttest, while those praised for ability solved about 5.5 problems in the pretest and only 4.5 problems in the posttest.\" width=\"406\" height=\"259\" \/><\/a> Figure 5. The difference between the number of problems solved on the pre-test as compared with the post-test.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/1d3cfc01-32fd-47e3-a1bf-c8244dd6b349\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a08f3596-2c71-4191-b4c5-50e929c53414\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Mueller and Dweck experiment shows how a single comment to a child can have at least a temporary effect. It is unlikely that these children were still influenced by that one comment (\u201cYou\u2019re smart!\u201d or \u201cYou worked hard!\u201d) a day later or even an hour later. But at least for a short time in a controlled setting, the children were apparently affected by what the adult researcher said to them. Why would this matter? If a child repeatedly and consistently hears one sort of encouragement or the other, the child can internalize that way of thinking. Later, as an adolescent and then an adult, the individual\u2019s \u201cmindset\u201d can determine how that person approaches new opportunities to learn and to grow intellectually.\r\n\r\nBefore you go on, we\u2019d like you to create a psychological theory. This may sound like a strange thing to do because theories are often presented to you in textbooks as being the final summary of some research. Sometimes that is true, but the primary use of theories in real scientific research is as a temporary and changeable summary of a researcher\u2019s ideas.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nUsing the figure below, which shows a sequence of influences beginning with either praise for effort or praise for ability, build a psychological theory.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290549119774223068\/embed\" width=\"605\" height=\"601\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\nThis is the\u00a0psychological theory based on Dr. Dweck\u2019s ideas, showing how the two different mindsets lead to different outcomes.[footnote]This particular version of her theory did not come directly from her papers. We have put them together in this form to illustrate how experience can influence thinking which then influences behavior.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nWhat this theory says is that different kinds of praise encourage the child to focus on different goals. Praise for effort tells the child that the process of learning is important and reward comes from trying hard. Praise for ability tells the child that performance comes from something mysterious inside of you (\u201cintelligence\u201d or \u201ctalent\u201d) rather than from what you do.\r\n\r\nAccording to the theory (and supported by the results), children who had been praised for effort could focus on the process of learning, so failure at hard problems could be seen as a challenge\u2014even something fun\u2014and failure could motivate them. The children who were praised for their intelligence, which effort cannot change, felt smart when they had easy problems, but the hard problems led to a disturbing realization: maybe I don\u2019t have that magical ability.\r\n\r\nAt stage 3 in the experiment, children who were energized by the difficult problems tackled the final set of problems, which were fairly easy, with enthusiasm that led to success. The children who were discouraged by failure handicapped themselves on the last set of problems, doing worse than they had at the beginning of the study.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nNext, let's read about a second study by Dweck\u2019s research team, though this one is described more briefly and with less detail. Study 2 is not an experiment because there are no manipulated variables. It is a longitudinal study, which means that the same participants (in this case, children) are tested repeatedly across a long period of time.\r\n<h2>Study 2: Blackwell, Trzesniewski, and Dweck (2007)<\/h2>\r\nIn this study[footnote]Lisa S. Blackwell, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol S. Dweck (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, January\/February 2007, Volume 78, Number 1, Pages 246 \u2013 263.[\/footnote], Dweck and her colleagues administered a questionnaire about beliefs and attitudes to some 7th graders in public schools, and then they tracked 373 of the students from the beginning of the 7th grade to the end of 8th grade. This period, which marked the transition from elementary school to junior high school, was considered a particularly interesting time because it was a challenging, even stressful, time for the students and the children\u2019s learning styles and attitudes could now have a substantial impact on their academic achievement.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4764\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04031723\/math.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-4764 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04031723\/math-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Eight grade student Caribe Polk gets some assistance from Chris Shumway, math teacher, at Feagin Mill Middle School Nov. 7. \" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 6<\/strong>. Students with a growth mindset demonstrated behaviors that led to better math performance.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAt the beginning of their 7th grade school year, the children were tested on their mindset (various levels of commitment to fixed or growth mindset), learning goals (preference for easy or challenging work), beliefs about effort (whether it tends to lead to improvement or not), and attitudes about failure (whether it is motivating or discouraging).\r\n\r\nThe researchers focused on the students\u2019 mathematics grades across the two years of the study. They chose mathematics because students tend to have strong beliefs about their skills (\u201cI\u2019m good at math\u201d or \u201cI\u2019m not a math person\u201d), which is influenced by their mindset and because math proficiency can be tested and graded fairly objectively. Although the study focused on math, the researchers were interested in any area of study or skill, not just math.\r\n\r\nThe figure below shows the average grades[footnote]More accurately, predicted grades from growth curves based on data and using a technique called hierarchical linear modeling.[\/footnote] of the students with strong fixed and strong growth mindsets based on the initial test. Students with mixed mindsets are not included in this graph. At the end of the first semester, there was a very modest difference of fewer than two points in math grades. The trends for the two lines are obviously different. The students with a fixed mindset (red line) showed a slight decline in average grades across the two years of the study. Students with a growth mindset (green line) show steady improvement across the two years, with their average grade increasing by nearly 3-points.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4558\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"524\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11151210\/mindsets.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-4558 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11151210\/mindsets.png\" alt=\"Line graph mapping the change in average math grades from fall of 7th grade to spring of 8th grade for students with a growth mindset and students with a fixed mindset. Growth Mindset students see an increase in their average math grades over time while fixed mindset students see a steady decrease in their average math grades over time. Growth Mindset students average a grade of around 73% in math in fall of 7th grade with a steady increase to 76% in spring of 8th grade. Fixed Mindset students start with an average math grade of around 71% with a steady decrease to about 70.5% in spring of 8th grade.\" width=\"524\" height=\"316\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 7<\/strong>. Differences in math grades between those with growth and fixed mindsets.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAt the beginning of the study, the students\u2014then just starting the first term of the 7th grade\u2014filled out a questionnaire about their attitudes and beliefs about learning. The table below summarizes these differences.[footnote]This table is not in the research paper. It is based on correlations between answers to the mindset question and answers to questions about these other issues. See Table 1 of the published study.[\/footnote] The reason for these questions is an important part of the psychology of learning. Mindset itself (fixed vs. growth) doesn\u2019t cause better or worse performance. Mindset leads to behaviors (types of studying, reactions to setbacks) that in turn affects the quality of learning.\r\n\r\nThe researchers found that children with growth mindsets (related to EFFORT praise in the first study) had different attitudes than children with fixed mindsets (related to ABILITY praise in the first study). The table below summarizes their findings.\r\n<table style=\"height: 60px;\"><caption>Growth Mindsets and Fixed Mindsets<\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"col\">Attitude<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"col\"><strong><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Fixed Mindset<\/span><\/strong><\/th>\r\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"col\"><strong><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Growth Mindset<\/span><\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"row\">Preferred difficulty of work<\/th>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Eas<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">y success<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Challenging<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"row\">Belief about value of effort<\/th>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Doesn't lead to improvement<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Leads to improvement<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"row\">Attitude about failure<\/th>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Discouraging<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Motivating\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe table indicates that children with different mindsets sought out different kinds of experience, with growth mindset children preferring challenging experiences, while those with a fixed mindset preferred easier learning experiences that led to easy success. The growth mindset students believed that working hard\u2014effort\u2014leads to improvement, while those with fixed mindsets tended to undervalue effort, believing that hard work is frustrating because we can\u2019t do better than our \u201ctalents\u201d or \u201cinnate abilities\u201d allow us to do. Finally, the growth mindset children found difficult work and even failure to be a source of inspiration. They wanted to prove to themselves and others that they could do what was needed to succeed. The fixed mindset children tended to respond to difficulty and failure with discouragement, believing that it simply reaffirmed their own limitations.\r\n<h3>Takeaways<\/h3>\r\nThe two studies we have discussed are just two of dozens of research projects by Dweck and others that show how mindset is related to differences in achievement. In another study, Grant and Dweck (2003) followed several hundred college students taking a pre-med organic chemistry course, as this is one of the most important and challenging courses for pre-med students at most universities. Students with a growth mindset outperformed students with a fixed mindset, and the two groups reported differences in attitudes and beliefs similar to those shown in the table above.\r\n\r\nMindset is just one factor that influences how we learn and how we respond to challenges. Whether you have a growth mindset or a fixed mindset, you can study hard and do well in school and in other areas. Here is a summary point from Carol Dweck: \u201cIt should be noted that in these studies...students who have a fixed mindset but who are well prepared and do not encounter difficulties can do just fine. However, when they encounter challenges or obstacles they may then be at a disadvantage.\u201d\r\n\r\nOne last thing to remember is this: <strong>you can change your mindset<\/strong>. If you regularly handicap yourself by your beliefs (I just don\u2019t have the talent for this) and attitudes about learning (I can\u2019t learn this), you can change those beliefs and attitudes. That change in mindset can be the difference between an effective response to challenges or avoidance of those challenges. Keep in mind that your beliefs and attitudes are the result of many years of experience, so you won\u2019t change your mindset overnight by simply deciding to be different. You may have to work at it. In particular, when you encounter difficulty\u2014a poor grade on a test, a paper that has some negative comments from your professor, or a reading assignment that leaves you confused\u2014that is the time that your mindset can have a huge impact on what you do next. Don't let your mindset prevent you from realizing your abilities or reaching your potential!","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain how different praise and mindsets can lead to different levels of performance<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>How Mindset Influences Performance<\/h2>\n<p>Imagine that you are a parent and your child has just brought home a report card from 4th grade that is really good. You look it over and feel proud of your son or daughter. \u00a0With a wide grin on your face, you turn to your child and say:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI\u2019m so proud of you! This report card is great! You __________\u201d<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>are so smart!<\/li>\n<li>must have worked so hard!<\/li>\n<li>have some jelly on your nose!<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>We hope you didn\u2019t choose the jelly statement. Between the other two options, which one would you be more likely to blurt out?<\/p>\n<p>It turns out that your choice could matter.<\/p>\n<p>Carol Dweck, who is now a Professor of Psychology at Stanford University, has been studying factors that promote or interfere with achievement since the 1970s. Over this time, and especially since the mid-1990s, she came to realize that our ways of dealing with the world and particularly our behaviors in trying to achieve our own goals are influenced by what she calls \u201cself-theories\u201d: beliefs we have about our own abilities, strengths and weaknesses, and potential. These self-theories affect decisions we make about what is possible or sensible or reasonable to do in order to achieve our goals.<\/p>\n<p>Before we discuss Carol Dweck\u2019s work, please answer a few questions about your own beliefs. Try to answer based on your real ways of thinking. The questions are a bit repetitive, but answer each one without regard to your previous answers.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.proprofs.com\/quiz-school\/personality\/quizshow.php?title=mindset-quiz_3YA&amp;q=1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Take the\u00a0 8-question Mindset Quiz here<\/a>\u00a0or <a href=\"http:\/\/community.mindsetworks.com\/what-s-my-mindset?view=quiz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">take the 8-question Mindset Quiz here<\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4763\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04024500\/13584535514_db32745625_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4763\" class=\"wp-image-4763 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04024500\/13584535514_db32745625_k-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"Teacher looks on as two fourth-grade students work on assignments.\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4763\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Those with a growth mindset are optimistic about how the environment, experiences, and attitudes can influence intelligence.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Dr. Dweck and her colleagues have used questions like the ones you just answered to sort people into groups based on their beliefs about intelligence (and other abilities and skills). She has found that people tend to adopt one of two general sets of beliefs about intelligence. People with a <strong>fixed mindset<\/strong>\u00a0tend to think of intelligence as an \u201centity\u201d\u2014something that is part of a person\u2019s essential self. According to people with this belief, intelligence does not change much regardless of what we do or what we experience. Other people have a <strong>growth mindset<\/strong>, and they tend to think of intelligence as being \u201cincremental\u201d\u2014a quality that can change for better or worse depending on what we do and on the experiences we have. Some people are strongly committed to one or the other end of the fixed vs. growth mindset scale, while others fall in-between to varying degrees.<\/p>\n<h2>Study 1: \u00a0Mueller &amp; Dweck (1998)<\/h2>\n<p>If Dweck is right, our mindset has a big impact on how well we achieve our potential\u2014in school and in many other areas of our lives (for example, in sports, music, and business). But where do these different mindsets come from?<\/p>\n<p>There can be many reasons that a person comes to believe that intelligence is fixed or changeable, but one obvious influence on our way of thinking about ourselves is the messages we hear from adults as we grow up. Dweck and her then-graduate student Claudia Mueller wanted to see if they could influence the mindset of children, if only for a brief period of time, by giving different kinds of praise to the children. Their starting point was the unsurprising and well-established idea that praise is motivating. When we do something and receive praise, we are more likely to want to do that same thing again. But Mueller and Dweck wondered if all praise is equal. In particular, is it possible that certain types of praise that well-meaning parents and teachers often use could actually reduce a child\u2019s motivation to learn and that child\u2019s resiliency when they encounter challenges?<\/p>\n<p>The researchers recruited 128 fifth graders (70 girls and 58 boys ranging in age from 10 to 12) to participate in their study. Before we go into the details of the first experiment, please get a feel for the task that the children had to perform.<\/p>\n<p>You will have one minute to solve as many of the problems below as you can.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Questions used with permission from http:\/\/www.smart-kit.com\/scategory\/brain-teasers\/iq-test-questions\/\" id=\"return-footnote-4543-1\" href=\"#footnote-4543-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> For each problem, you will see a set of patterns arranged in a 3&#215;3 matrix. Each matrix has one item missing, and your task is to figure out what the missing item is based on the changing patterns in the rows, columns, and diagonals.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>Before we start, here is one practice item. The 3&#215;3 matrix is at the top and the pattern on the lower right is missing. Figure out which one of the eight patterns on the bottom, labeled 1 to 8, is the missing pattern.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144140\/practiceq.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-4545 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144140\/practiceq.png\" alt=\"A sample question from an IQ test, showing three sets of a 3x3 grid with stars in certain squares, with the last square missing. Imagine the grid is labeled 1-9, beginning in the top left. In the first image, there are stars in 1 and 8; the next has a star in 5; the next has stars in 1, 5, and 8; the next has stars in 3 and 7; the next has stars in 1 and 9; the next has stars in 1,3,7, and 9; the next has stars in 2 and 8, and the last has stars in 4 and 6. Which image should come next?\" width=\"472\" height=\"524\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q491551\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q491551\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">The correct answer is pattern #7. The pattern on the right in each row combines the dots from the other two patterns in that row.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>Now you will have ONE MINUTE to solve as many of the problems below as possible.<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"twine\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/mindset\/test\/mindset_test.html\" width=\"100%\" height=\"500px\" scrolling=\"no\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<p>Now that you&#8217;ve taken the test, how much would you like to try some more of these questions?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Not at all<\/li>\n<li>1<\/li>\n<li>2<\/li>\n<li>3<\/li>\n<li>4<\/li>\n<li>5<\/li>\n<li>Very much<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>How much did you enjoy working on these problems?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Not at all<\/li>\n<li>1<\/li>\n<li>2<\/li>\n<li>3<\/li>\n<li>4<\/li>\n<li>5<\/li>\n<li>Very much<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>How well do you think you did on these problems overall?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Not very well<\/li>\n<li>1<\/li>\n<li>2<\/li>\n<li>3<\/li>\n<li>4<\/li>\n<li>5<\/li>\n<li>Very well<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If we gave you some more problems, would you prefer some more like the easier practice problem or some more like the hardest test problem you tried?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Like the easier practice problem<\/li>\n<li>Like the hardest test problem<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>The problem-solving task you just tried out is based on a widely used psychological test called the Raven\u2019s Progressive Matrices. Most people find the test to be challenging, requiring close attention to detail and careful logical thinking. Mueller and Dweck chose this task because it could be adapted to be relatively easy or extremely difficult by changing the complexity of the patterns required for the solution.<\/p>\n<p>The experiment had three stages, each based around a different set of matrix problems like the ones you worked on. Each child was tested one-on-one in an otherwise empty classroom by a research assistant.<\/p>\n<h3>Stage 1: Pretest, Treatment, and Assessment of Motivation<\/h3>\n<h4>Pretest<\/h4>\n<p>The children were given instructions and 10 problems that were fairly easy to solve. At the end of 4 minutes, they were stopped and the research assistant scored their answers. On average, the children attempted to answer 7.9 out of the 10 problems, and the mean number correct was 5.2.<\/p>\n<h4>Treatment<\/h4>\n<p>When you do something to manipulate an independent variable, that something you do (administer a pill, tell the participant something that might affect performance, etc.) is called a \u201ctreatment.\u201d In this case, the treatment was the feedback the child received about their performance on the progressive matrices task. This treatment involved a bit of deception because children received randomly assigned feedback. In other words, regardless of real performance, the children heard one of three statements depending on random assignment to a treatment condition.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">First, every child was told: \u201cWow, you did very well on these problems. You got _____ right. That\u2019s a really high score.\u201d The minimum number right that a child heard was 80%, which is obviously well above the actual average of 51%. If a child got more than 80% correct, the actual number correct was used.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The next step was based on the treatment condition the child had been assigned to:\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Some of the children were praised for their ABILITY: \u201cYou must be smart at these problems.\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Other children were praised for their EFFORT: \u201cYou must have worked hard at these problems.\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The remaining children were in the CONTROL condition. They did not receive any additional feedback, aside from the general praise shown above.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Assessment<\/h4>\n<p>After receiving feedback and, for children in two of the conditions, additional praise, the children were asked a series of questions. The experimenters wanted to know if the success the children experienced in the first set of problems, along with the type of praise, influenced their choice of additional problems. They were told that they might get some more problems to solve and they were asked to choose the difficulty of those problems. There were several options, but the choice came down to this:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none;\">\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Give me easy problems: \u201cProblems that I\u2019m pretty good at, so I can show that I\u2019m smart.\u201d<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Give me challenging problems: \u201cProblems that I\u2019ll learn a lot from, even if I won\u2019t look so smart.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The children were then told that there might be some time at the end of the session to work on these problems they had chosen, but that the next problems they would work on had been determined before the experiment started. They were told this so they would not interpret the next problem set as being \u201ceasy\u201d or \u201cchallenging\u201d based on their selection.<\/p>\n<p>The results showed that the children were genuinely influenced by the praise they had received. The figure below shows the percentage of children choosing EASY problems, broken down by treatment condition. The children who were praised for how smart they were (ability) were far more likely to choose easy problems than were the children praise for working hard (effort). The control condition, children who were told they did well but received no additional praise, were in the middle.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4551\" style=\"width: 378px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144717\/typeofpraisegraph.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4551\" class=\"wp-image-4551 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11144717\/typeofpraisegraph.png\" alt=\"Bar graph showing the percentage of students choosing easy problems. Of those who were praised on ability nearly 70% chose easy problems, 50% of the control condition chose easy problems, and less than 10% of those who were praised for effort chose the easy problems.\" width=\"368\" height=\"267\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4551\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. The type of praise given influenced the types of problems students wanted to tackle. This graph shows the number of students choosing easy problems after given praise.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_39586e67-1a69-459c-be11-23691ef26381\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/39586e67-1a69-459c-be11-23691ef26381?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_39586e67-1a69-459c-be11-23691ef26381\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Stage 2: Failure, Negative Feedback, and Consequences<\/h3>\n<h4>Failure<\/h4>\n<p>Next, the children tried to solve a new set of 10 matrix problems and again they had 4 minutes. On the surface, these problems looked about the same as the first set, but they were considerably more difficult. After the 4-minute test period, the researchers scored the answers and, regardless of actual performance, they told the children that they had done poorly (\u201ca lot worse\u201d). No one was told that they had solved more than 50% correctly. In fact, this feedback was accurate. The results showed that the children found the problems difficult. On average, they attempted 5.8 of the 10 problems and correctly solved only 1.8 of them. There was no significant difference in the number of problems solved for the three groups (ability feedback, effort feedback, and no-feedback control).<\/p>\n<h4>Consequences<\/h4>\n<p>Now the experimenters wanted to know about the effect of \u201cfailure\u201d on the children\u2019s motivation (though the term \u201cfailure\u201d was never used with the children).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately after receiving feedback, the children were asked a series of questions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much would you like to take these problems home to work on?\u201d [This was a measure of \u201ctask persistence\u201d]<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much did you like working on the first set of problems? How much did you enjoy working on the second set? How much fun were the problems? [These measured \u201ctask enjoyment\u201d]<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Using a somewhat complicated measure, the children were also asked to explain their difficulties with the second problem set by attributing failure to lack of ability or lack of effort. This was done in a way that they could explain their problems on the second set as partially due to low ability and partially to low effort.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Results<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much would you like to take these problems home?\u201d The children answered on a 1-to-6 scale, where higher numbers mean more interest in taking the problems home to practice.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"attachment_4552\" style=\"width: 318px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145106\/praisegivenforhome.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4552\" class=\"wp-image-4552 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145106\/praisegivenforhome.png\" alt=\"Bar graph showing the type of praise given and the feelings of the participants about how much they would like to take the problems home. A higher score means the participant was more interested in taking the problems home. Those praised for ability scored it just over a 3, while those in the control just over a 4, and those who were praised for effort, just under a 5.\" width=\"308\" height=\"264\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4552\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. How praise influenced students&#8217; desires to take the problems home. Statistical note: the Ability group was significantly lower than the other two. There was no significant difference between the Control and Effort groups.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u201cHow much fun were the problems?\u201d The children answered on a 1-to-6 scale, where higher numbers mean more enjoyment of the problems.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"attachment_4553\" style=\"width: 346px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145455\/praiseandfun.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4553\" class=\"wp-image-4553 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11145455\/praiseandfun.png\" alt=\"On a scale of 1-6, students who were praised for ability rated the problems as a 4 for &quot;fun&quot;, while students in the control rated them at a 4.5, and students who were praised for effort rated them at a 5.\" width=\"336\" height=\"306\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4553\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. Tye type of praise given had a small, but noticeable, impact on how much students enjoyed the problems. Statistical note: all three groups were significantly different from each other.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Why did you perform poorly on this second set of problems? The children expressed their own explanation for their poor performance using a somewhat complicated procedure. It was not a simple ability vs. effort choice and they could apportion their failure partially to either cause (reference the original study for more details).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"attachment_5055\" style=\"width: 674px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/29150742\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-26-at-1.55.05-PM1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5055\" class=\"wp-image-5055\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/29150742\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-26-at-1.55.05-PM1.png\" alt=\"Two bar graphs. The first shows responses to the question &quot;How much was your failure due to low ability?&quot; The group that had been praised for ability answered high to this at 16, while the control group answered at 14 and the effort group responded at 10. The second bar graph shows responses to &quot;How much was your failure due to low effort? The ability group answered low (5), the control group at 11 and the effort group at 12.\" width=\"664\" height=\"253\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5055\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5<\/strong>. When asked how much of their &#8220;failure&#8221; was due to low ability, those praised for ability were more likely to blame their own inability. When asked how much of their failure was due to low effort, those who were praised for ability did not blame their effort, rather their ability.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Stage 3: Posttest<\/h3>\n<p>For the last stage of the experiment, the children were given a new set of problems that was similar in difficulty to the first set. The problems were moderately difficult, and the children had 4 minutes to solve as many as possible. The figure below shows the change in the average number of problems between the pretest (Stage 1) and the posttest (Stage 3).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Instructions:<\/strong> Click and drag the circles on the right (Posttest) to where you think they should be to reflect the results of the experiment. When you&#8217;re done, click the link below to see the actual results.<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/mindset\/linegraph2.html\" width=\"680\" height=\"450\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q47435\">Click here to see the results.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q47435\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<div id=\"attachment_4555\" style=\"width: 416px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11150500\/changes.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4555\" class=\"wp-image-4555 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11150500\/changes.png\" alt=\"Line graph shows the number of problems solved in the pretest compared with the number of problems solved in the posttest. The control group solved about the same amount of problems in the pretest as in the posttest, roughly 5.25. The group praised for effort solved about 5 problems in the pretest, but nearly 6.5 problems in the posttest, while those praised for ability solved about 5.5 problems in the pretest and only 4.5 problems in the posttest.\" width=\"406\" height=\"259\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4555\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5. The difference between the number of problems solved on the pre-test as compared with the post-test.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_1d3cfc01-32fd-47e3-a1bf-c8244dd6b349\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/1d3cfc01-32fd-47e3-a1bf-c8244dd6b349?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_1d3cfc01-32fd-47e3-a1bf-c8244dd6b349\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><br \/>\n\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_a08f3596-2c71-4191-b4c5-50e929c53414\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/a08f3596-2c71-4191-b4c5-50e929c53414?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_a08f3596-2c71-4191-b4c5-50e929c53414\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Mueller and Dweck experiment shows how a single comment to a child can have at least a temporary effect. It is unlikely that these children were still influenced by that one comment (\u201cYou\u2019re smart!\u201d or \u201cYou worked hard!\u201d) a day later or even an hour later. But at least for a short time in a controlled setting, the children were apparently affected by what the adult researcher said to them. Why would this matter? If a child repeatedly and consistently hears one sort of encouragement or the other, the child can internalize that way of thinking. Later, as an adolescent and then an adult, the individual\u2019s \u201cmindset\u201d can determine how that person approaches new opportunities to learn and to grow intellectually.<\/p>\n<p>Before you go on, we\u2019d like you to create a psychological theory. This may sound like a strange thing to do because theories are often presented to you in textbooks as being the final summary of some research. Sometimes that is true, but the primary use of theories in real scientific research is as a temporary and changeable summary of a researcher\u2019s ideas.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>Using the figure below, which shows a sequence of influences beginning with either praise for effort or praise for ability, build a psychological theory.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290549119774223068\/embed\" width=\"605\" height=\"601\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<p>This is the\u00a0psychological theory based on Dr. Dweck\u2019s ideas, showing how the two different mindsets lead to different outcomes.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This particular version of her theory did not come directly from her papers. We have put them together in this form to illustrate how experience can influence thinking which then influences behavior.\" id=\"return-footnote-4543-2\" href=\"#footnote-4543-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>What this theory says is that different kinds of praise encourage the child to focus on different goals. Praise for effort tells the child that the process of learning is important and reward comes from trying hard. Praise for ability tells the child that performance comes from something mysterious inside of you (\u201cintelligence\u201d or \u201ctalent\u201d) rather than from what you do.<\/p>\n<p>According to the theory (and supported by the results), children who had been praised for effort could focus on the process of learning, so failure at hard problems could be seen as a challenge\u2014even something fun\u2014and failure could motivate them. The children who were praised for their intelligence, which effort cannot change, felt smart when they had easy problems, but the hard problems led to a disturbing realization: maybe I don\u2019t have that magical ability.<\/p>\n<p>At stage 3 in the experiment, children who were energized by the difficult problems tackled the final set of problems, which were fairly easy, with enthusiasm that led to success. The children who were discouraged by failure handicapped themselves on the last set of problems, doing worse than they had at the beginning of the study.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Next, let&#8217;s read about a second study by Dweck\u2019s research team, though this one is described more briefly and with less detail. Study 2 is not an experiment because there are no manipulated variables. It is a longitudinal study, which means that the same participants (in this case, children) are tested repeatedly across a long period of time.<\/p>\n<h2>Study 2: Blackwell, Trzesniewski, and Dweck (2007)<\/h2>\n<p>In this study<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lisa S. Blackwell, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol S. Dweck (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, January\/February 2007, Volume 78, Number 1, Pages 246 \u2013 263.\" id=\"return-footnote-4543-3\" href=\"#footnote-4543-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>, Dweck and her colleagues administered a questionnaire about beliefs and attitudes to some 7th graders in public schools, and then they tracked 373 of the students from the beginning of the 7th grade to the end of 8th grade. This period, which marked the transition from elementary school to junior high school, was considered a particularly interesting time because it was a challenging, even stressful, time for the students and the children\u2019s learning styles and attitudes could now have a substantial impact on their academic achievement.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4764\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04031723\/math.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4764\" class=\"wp-image-4764 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/04031723\/math-300x199.jpg\" alt=\"Eight grade student Caribe Polk gets some assistance from Chris Shumway, math teacher, at Feagin Mill Middle School Nov. 7.\" width=\"300\" height=\"199\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4764\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 6<\/strong>. Students with a growth mindset demonstrated behaviors that led to better math performance.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>At the beginning of their 7th grade school year, the children were tested on their mindset (various levels of commitment to fixed or growth mindset), learning goals (preference for easy or challenging work), beliefs about effort (whether it tends to lead to improvement or not), and attitudes about failure (whether it is motivating or discouraging).<\/p>\n<p>The researchers focused on the students\u2019 mathematics grades across the two years of the study. They chose mathematics because students tend to have strong beliefs about their skills (\u201cI\u2019m good at math\u201d or \u201cI\u2019m not a math person\u201d), which is influenced by their mindset and because math proficiency can be tested and graded fairly objectively. Although the study focused on math, the researchers were interested in any area of study or skill, not just math.<\/p>\n<p>The figure below shows the average grades<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"More accurately, predicted grades from growth curves based on data and using a technique called hierarchical linear modeling.\" id=\"return-footnote-4543-4\" href=\"#footnote-4543-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> of the students with strong fixed and strong growth mindsets based on the initial test. Students with mixed mindsets are not included in this graph. At the end of the first semester, there was a very modest difference of fewer than two points in math grades. The trends for the two lines are obviously different. The students with a fixed mindset (red line) showed a slight decline in average grades across the two years of the study. Students with a growth mindset (green line) show steady improvement across the two years, with their average grade increasing by nearly 3-points.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4558\" style=\"width: 534px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11151210\/mindsets.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4558\" class=\"wp-image-4558 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/05\/11151210\/mindsets.png\" alt=\"Line graph mapping the change in average math grades from fall of 7th grade to spring of 8th grade for students with a growth mindset and students with a fixed mindset. Growth Mindset students see an increase in their average math grades over time while fixed mindset students see a steady decrease in their average math grades over time. Growth Mindset students average a grade of around 73% in math in fall of 7th grade with a steady increase to 76% in spring of 8th grade. Fixed Mindset students start with an average math grade of around 71% with a steady decrease to about 70.5% in spring of 8th grade.\" width=\"524\" height=\"316\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4558\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 7<\/strong>. Differences in math grades between those with growth and fixed mindsets.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>At the beginning of the study, the students\u2014then just starting the first term of the 7th grade\u2014filled out a questionnaire about their attitudes and beliefs about learning. The table below summarizes these differences.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This table is not in the research paper. It is based on correlations between answers to the mindset question and answers to questions about these other issues. See Table 1 of the published study.\" id=\"return-footnote-4543-5\" href=\"#footnote-4543-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> The reason for these questions is an important part of the psychology of learning. Mindset itself (fixed vs. growth) doesn\u2019t cause better or worse performance. Mindset leads to behaviors (types of studying, reactions to setbacks) that in turn affects the quality of learning.<\/p>\n<p>The researchers found that children with growth mindsets (related to EFFORT praise in the first study) had different attitudes than children with fixed mindsets (related to ABILITY praise in the first study). The table below summarizes their findings.<\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 60px;\">\n<caption>Growth Mindsets and Fixed Mindsets<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"col\">Attitude<\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"col\"><strong><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Fixed Mindset<\/span><\/strong><\/th>\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"col\"><strong><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Growth Mindset<\/span><\/strong><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"row\">Preferred difficulty of work<\/th>\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Eas<\/span><span style=\"color: #333333;\">y success<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Challenging<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"row\">Belief about value of effort<\/th>\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Doesn&#8217;t lead to improvement<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Leads to improvement<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<th style=\"height: 15px;\" scope=\"row\">Attitude about failure<\/th>\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Discouraging<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px;\"><span style=\"color: #333333;\">Motivating\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The table indicates that children with different mindsets sought out different kinds of experience, with growth mindset children preferring challenging experiences, while those with a fixed mindset preferred easier learning experiences that led to easy success. The growth mindset students believed that working hard\u2014effort\u2014leads to improvement, while those with fixed mindsets tended to undervalue effort, believing that hard work is frustrating because we can\u2019t do better than our \u201ctalents\u201d or \u201cinnate abilities\u201d allow us to do. Finally, the growth mindset children found difficult work and even failure to be a source of inspiration. They wanted to prove to themselves and others that they could do what was needed to succeed. The fixed mindset children tended to respond to difficulty and failure with discouragement, believing that it simply reaffirmed their own limitations.<\/p>\n<h3>Takeaways<\/h3>\n<p>The two studies we have discussed are just two of dozens of research projects by Dweck and others that show how mindset is related to differences in achievement. In another study, Grant and Dweck (2003) followed several hundred college students taking a pre-med organic chemistry course, as this is one of the most important and challenging courses for pre-med students at most universities. Students with a growth mindset outperformed students with a fixed mindset, and the two groups reported differences in attitudes and beliefs similar to those shown in the table above.<\/p>\n<p>Mindset is just one factor that influences how we learn and how we respond to challenges. Whether you have a growth mindset or a fixed mindset, you can study hard and do well in school and in other areas. Here is a summary point from Carol Dweck: \u201cIt should be noted that in these studies&#8230;students who have a fixed mindset but who are well prepared and do not encounter difficulties can do just fine. However, when they encounter challenges or obstacles they may then be at a disadvantage.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>One last thing to remember is this: <strong>you can change your mindset<\/strong>. If you regularly handicap yourself by your beliefs (I just don\u2019t have the talent for this) and attitudes about learning (I can\u2019t learn this), you can change those beliefs and attitudes. That change in mindset can be the difference between an effective response to challenges or avoidance of those challenges. Keep in mind that your beliefs and attitudes are the result of many years of experience, so you won\u2019t change your mindset overnight by simply deciding to be different. You may have to work at it. In particular, when you encounter difficulty\u2014a poor grade on a test, a paper that has some negative comments from your professor, or a reading assignment that leaves you confused\u2014that is the time that your mindset can have a huge impact on what you do next. Don&#8217;t let your mindset prevent you from realizing your abilities or reaching your potential!<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4543\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psychology in Real Life: Growth Mindsets. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Patrick Carroll for Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>picture of teacher with students. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Army Medicine. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Flickr. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/armymedicine\/13584535514\">https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/armymedicine\/13584535514<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Math student gets help from teacher. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sue Sapp. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: U.S. Air Force. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.robins.af.mil\/News\/Photos\/igphoto\/2000659561\/\">http:\/\/www.robins.af.mil\/News\/Photos\/igphoto\/2000659561\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-4543-1\">Questions used with permission from <a href=\"http:\/\/www.smart-kit.com\/scategory\/brain-teasers\/iq-test-questions\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.smart-kit.com\/scategory\/brain-teasers\/iq-test-questions\/<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-4543-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4543-2\">This particular version of her theory did not come directly from her papers. We have put them together in this form to illustrate how experience can influence thinking which then influences behavior. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4543-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4543-3\">Lisa S. Blackwell, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol S. Dweck (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, January\/February 2007, Volume 78, Number 1, Pages 246 \u2013 263. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4543-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4543-4\">More accurately, predicted grades from growth curves based on data and using a technique called hierarchical linear modeling. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4543-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4543-5\">This table is not in the research paper. It is based on correlations between answers to the mindset question and answers to questions about these other issues. See Table 1 of the published study. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4543-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Psychology in Real Life: Growth Mindsets\",\"author\":\"Patrick Carroll for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"picture of teacher with students\",\"author\":\"Army Medicine\",\"organization\":\"Flickr\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/armymedicine\/13584535514\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Math student gets help from teacher\",\"author\":\"Sue Sapp\",\"organization\":\"U.S. Air Force\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.robins.af.mil\/News\/Photos\/igphoto\/2000659561\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"06012367-cd4f-4ee9-8322-7749963b7d9c, 2657e536-3c02-459e-8bd3-5d3e71dbe388","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4543","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":520,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4543","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":47,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4543\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8328,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4543\/revisions\/8328"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/520"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4543\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4543"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4543"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4543"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4543"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}