{"id":4856,"date":"2018-03-01T16:17:15","date_gmt":"2018-03-01T16:17:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=4856"},"modified":"2024-05-17T15:07:15","modified_gmt":"2024-05-17T15:07:15","slug":"psych-in-real-life-blirtatiousness-questionnaires-and-validity","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/psych-in-real-life-blirtatiousness-questionnaires-and-validity\/","title":{"raw":"Psych in Real Life: Blirtatiousness, Questionnaires, and Validity","rendered":"Psych in Real Life: Blirtatiousness, Questionnaires, and Validity"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the complications of developing personality assessments, including the importance of reliability and validity<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Creating a Personality Questionnaire<\/h2>\r\nPsychologists often assess a person\u2019s personality using a questionnaire that is filled in by the person who is being assessed. Such a test is called a \u201cself-report inventory.\u201d To get into the spirit of personality assessment, please complete the personality inventory below. It has only 10 questions. Simply decide how much each pair of words or phrases fits you.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.psytoolkit.org\/c\/3.4.0\/survey?s=7rOq6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Take the TIPI Personality Test<\/a><\/p>\r\nThe questionnaire you just completed is called the TIPI: The Ten-Item Personality Inventory. It was created by University of Texas psychologist Sam Gosling as a very brief measure of five personality characteristics: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experience. These five personality dimensions are called \u201cThe Big Five\u201d and, taken together, they have been found to be an excellent first-level summary of people\u2019s personalities.\r\n\r\nTests of the Big Five personality dimensions are widely used by researchers and by people in business and education who want a general view of a person\u2019s personality. Several different self-report inventories have been developed to measure the Big Five factors, most with 50 or more questions. The TIPI, which you just took, was developed for situations where time is very limited and the tester (usually a researcher) needs a \u201cgood enough\u201d version of the test. One of the longer versions would be used by someone needing a more reliable and nuanced view of someone\u2019s personality.\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\r\n\r\nLooking at the TIPI, you might have the impression that creating a personality inventory is pretty easy. You come up with a few obvious questions, find names that fit, and you\u2019re ready to claim you are measuring something about people\u2019s personality. Undoubtedly you can find some \u201cpersonality tests\u201d on the internet that fit this description, but tests created by serious psychologists for use in research or in clinical settings must go through a much more careful development process before they are widely accepted and used. And, even then, the tests continue to be studied, criticized, and revised.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn this exercise, we will look more closely at some of the work that goes into creating a personality inventory or questionnaire. To help you keep your eyes on the <em>process<\/em> of test construction, we want you to think about a personality dimension that is not as obvious as self-esteem or extraversion. We are going to assess <strong>blirtatiousness<\/strong>.\r\n<h2>Part 1: Creating the Blirt Scale<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\r\n\r\nOne of my closest friends is sometimes annoying and usually entertaining, but he never holds back; you always know what he\u2019s thinking. His wife is kind and friendly, and she is the first to arrive when help is needed, but she hides her feelings and opinions. It is not easy to know what she wants or where she stands.Consider your own closest friends. Where do they fall on the continuum between my friends? Who is open and easy to read, and who is private and guarded?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">One of my closest friends is sometimes annoying and usually entertaining, but they never holds back; you always know what they're thinking. Their partner is kind and friendly, and she is first to arrive when help is needed, but she hides her feelings and opinions. It is not easy to know what she wants or where she stands. Consider your own closest friends. Where do they fall on the continuum between my friends? Who is open and easy to read, and who is private and guarded?<\/div>\r\nBack in the early 2000s, social psychologist William Swann and his colleagues became interested in the impact of self-disclosure\u2014the process of communicating information about ourselves to other people\u2014on personal relationships. In one paper, the researchers wrote about \u201cblirters\u201d and \u201cbrooders\u201d\u2014good labels for my two friends. Early in their research, the psychologists realized that the story was not going to be simple. Enthusiastic self-disclosure (blirting) is sometimes good for relationships and sometimes bad, and the same is true about reluctance to self-disclose (brooding).\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">The researchers also realized that they didn\u2019t really have a good way to sort people out on the self-disclosure continuum. Self-selection (\u201cI\u2019m very open.\u201d \u201cI\u2019m very private.\u201d) often doesn\u2019t fit with how other people\u2014including your friends\u2014see you. And researchers\u2019 first impressions (\u201cHe seems like a blirter.\" \"She seems like a brooder.\u201d) are extremely unreliable. They needed a better way to measure people\u2019s willingness to self-disclose.<\/div>\r\nIn this exercise, we\u2019re going to give you a small taste of the process of creating a personality questionnaire. To do this, we are going to recreate Dr. Swann\u2019s \u201cblirtatiousness\u201d test that is now used by researchers studying self-disclosure in personal relationships.\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">By the way, even serious psychologists seem to want to give their tests interesting names, so the name BLIRT stands for Brief Loquaciousness and Interpersonal Responsiveness Test.<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\"><em>By the way, even serious psychologists seem to want to give their tests interesting names, so the name BLIRT stands for Brief Loquaciousness and Interpersonal Responsiveness Test.<\/em><\/div>\r\n<h3>Scale Construction: What Questions Should We Use?<\/h3>\r\nThe first step in constructing a test or scale to measure some personal characteristic is to be clear about what it is you are measuring. In their papers, Dr. Swann and his colleagues discuss what they mean by \u201cblirtatiousness\u201d in detail, but here the following definition should be enough: <em>Blirtatiousness is the extent to which people respond to friends and partners quickly and effusively.\u00a0<\/em>A person is effusive if they excitedly show and express emotion.\r\n\r\nOne thing to notice about this definition is that it focuses on behavior more than inner feelings. It is the behaviors of our friends and partners that affect us, regardless of their intentions and motivations, so that is what the BLIRT scale is all about.\r\n\r\nObviously, the first step in creating a questionnaire is writing the questions, but this is not as straightforward as it seems. Will they be open-ended (e.g., \u201cHow open-minded are you? ___). Probably not, as they are hard to score. Forced choice, where a person chooses one of several options, is a better choice. Some forced-choice questions make you give rankings, or\u00a0others may have you choose from options, like these questions from the <a href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/NPI\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Narcissistic Personality Inventory<\/a>:\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5042\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"658\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175056\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.50.27-PM.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-5042 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175056\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.50.27-PM.png\" alt=\"Sample text from the narcissistic personality inventory that has people choose which statement best identifies them: &quot;I have a natural talent for influencing people&quot; or &quot;I am not good an influencing people.&quot; and &quot;Modesty doesn't become me&quot; or &quot;I am essentially a modest person.&quot;\" width=\"658\" height=\"182\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The questions from Terry Raskin's\u00a0Narcissistic Personality Inventory force participants to choose between two options.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAnother common forced-choice format is the Likert[footnote]The man who created the scale pronounced his name as LICK-ert. Many psychologists\u2014maybe even your instructor\u2014pronounce it LIKE-ert. It probably doesn\u2019t matter much which way you say the name.[\/footnote] scale, which is composed of a statement (not a question) followed by 5 or 7 numbers allowing you to indicate your level of agreement with the statement. For example, here is an item from the <a href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/RSE.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Rosenberg Self-Esteem inventory<\/a>:\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5044\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"764\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175626\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.56.09-PM.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-5044 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175626\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.56.09-PM.png\" alt=\"Sample text from a personality inventory that says &quot;I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.&quot; Then a person can choose either strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.\" width=\"764\" height=\"108\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Morris Rosenberg's questions on the self-esteem inventory utilize the Likert scale.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDr. Swann and his team chose a 7-point Likert format to measure blirtatiousness. To do this, they needed to write clear, simple statements that people could agree or disagree with, where different levels of agreement were possible.\r\n\r\nWe aren\u2019t going to ask you to write any questions, but join the test-development team by looking at the eight statements below. Choose four that you think would be the best items to include in the BLIRT scale.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290550739684166808\/embed\" width=\"618\" height=\"520\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\nWhen they were developing the scale, Dr. Swann and his team wrote dozens of questions and then pared them down to 20. Then, they got 237 undergraduates to rate the 20 questions for how well they fit the qualities that the BLIRT scale was trying to measure.[footnote]Note: Notice that the four items from the BLIRT are about what you DO. They aren\u2019t about your beliefs (option 1), how you think other people see you (option 3), opinions about yourself (option 4), or what you think about other people (option 6).[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nQuestionnaire writers have strategies to encourage people to read the statements carefully. For example, they often write \u201creverse scoring\u201d items. To show what this means, just below is the 7-point Likert scale used with the Blirtatiousness questionnaire. Below that, you will see two statements. Look at how the statements and the Likert scale fit together.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5045\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"485\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24180330\/likert.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-5045 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24180330\/likert.png\" alt=\"Likert scale showing 1 as strongly disagree, then counting up so that 4 is neither agree nor disagree and 7 is strongly agree.\" width=\"485\" height=\"72\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> A Likert scale.[\/caption]\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>I speak my mind as soon as a thought enters my head.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>For this question, 1 means not blirtatious and 7 means very blirtatious.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>I don't speak my mind as soon as a thought enters my head.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>For this question, 1 means very blirtatious and 7 means not blirtatious.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nDr. Swann and his team chose 8 items for the BLIRT scale and half were worded so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious, and half so that high numbers mean less blirtatious. After the test, a process called \u201creverse scoring\u201d put all the questions back on the same scale, so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious.[footnote]Reverse scoring is simple: 7 becomes 1, 6 becomes 2, 5 becomes 3, 4 stays 4, 3 becomes 5, 2 becomes 6, and 1 becomes 7. Only the 4 items with the reverse wording are rescored this way. The goal is to make it so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious for all the items.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nAt this point in the test-creation process, Dr. Swann and his team settled on eight statements that seemed to measure BLIRT. They were ready to administer the test, but before they could praise the test and its effectiveness, they needed to be sure of a few things: the questions need to work together as a set, the test must be reliable, and the test must be valid.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>The questions must work together as a set.<\/strong> In other words, we want to be sure that the 8 items are all giving us responses about the same quality (blirtatiousness) and that the responses people are giving are consistent with one another.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You might think that a single question would be enough to measure blirtatiousness. Why ask 8 questions when one would do? But research has shown that asking variations on the same question 8 or 10 different times gives a more stable measure. The questions must be slightly different (enough to make people think carefully), but not too different (so they measure different things).<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The researchers administered the BLIRT to 1,137 students and used statistical procedures[footnote]Cronbach\u2019s alpha and Factor Analysis[\/footnote] to be sure that the 8 items in the scale worked together. The results indicated that the 8 items on the scale were consistent with each other in measuring the same psychological quality.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>The test must be reliable<\/strong>. The word \u201creliability\u201d means \u201cconsistent.\u201d We should be able to give you a test of some quality (e.g., how extraverted you are) and then give you that same test again two months later, and your scores should be pretty similar. This is important for what is called \u201cstable traits.\u201d Obviously, some psychological qualities, like moods, change all the time and we would not expect consistency. But, blirtatiousness should be a stable trait.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One common way to measure reliability of a test is a process called \u201ctest-retest reliability.\u201d It is as simple as it sounds: you give the test, wait some period of time, and give again to the same people.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e8990c25-b5a7-4d1f-a00f-5597ea2463dd\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>The test must be valid.<\/strong> Believe it or not, after all this work, we still don\u2019t know if the BLIRT scale is VALID. Validity is a question of whether or not we are measuring the thing we are trying to measure. Reliability doesn\u2019t tell us if a scale is valid; reliability simply means that we get consistent answers. So how can we figure out if our test is valid or not? We\u2019ll go into that in the next section.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290477372809028568\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe exercises you just reviewed give you a taste of the initial steps in creating a personality inventory. We started by carefully defining the personality trait. We had to figure out how we were going to ask our questions, and we chose a Likert scale. The questions had to be carefully written to be clear and focused on the trait we are studying: blirtatiousness. Writing effective items usually involves a process of writing, testing, selection, rewriting, retesting, and selecting again, until we are satisfied that our questions are good. Once we have compiled a test--at least a candidate for the test--we need to administer it to people to see if it is reliable and internally consistent (i.e., that all the questions are measuring the same trait).\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Measuring Personality<\/h3>\r\nBefore you go on, now is a good time to measure <em>your<\/em> blirtatiousness. Follow the link below to find out if you are a blirter or a brooder.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/labs.la.utexas.edu\/swann\/the-blirt\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Take the Blirt Test<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Part 2: Does the Blirt Scale Measure What It Claims to Measure?<\/h2>\r\nNo one wants to use a scale that hasn\u2019t been shown to be valid. And validity is really hard to show.\r\n<h3>Analyzing Validity<\/h3>\r\nHere is our challenge. Remember that blirtatiousness is the extent to which people respond to friends and partners quickly and effusively. Our questions may look good, but we need evidence that the numbers we get actually measure the trait.\r\n\r\nThere is no one way to determine the validity of a scale. Test developers like Dr. Swann usually take several different approaches. They may compare the test results with other personality tests of similar traits (convergent validity), or compare scores from the BLIRT test with other dissimilar tests (discriminant validity). Researchers may also compare the results of the BLIRT test to real-world outcomes (criterion validity), or see if the results work to predict people\u2019s behavior in certain situations (predictive validity).\r\n\r\nIn the sections below, we will peek at some studies that try to assess these different aspects of validity.\r\n<h3>Convergent and Discriminant Validity<\/h3>\r\nOne way to test the validity of a test is to compare it to results from tests of other traits for which validated tests already exist. There are two types of comparisons that researchers look for when they validate a test. One is called <em>convergent validity<\/em>\u00a0and the other is called <em>discriminant validity<\/em>.\r\n\r\nWhen testing for <strong>convergent validity<\/strong>, the researcher looks for other traits that are similar to (but not identical to) the trait they are measuring. For example, we are studying blirtatiousness. It would be reasonable to think that a person who is blirtatious is also assertive. The two traits\u2014blirtatiousness and assertiveness\u2014are not the same, but they are certainly related. If our blirtatiousness scale is not at all related to assertiveness, then we should be worried that we are not really measuring blirtatiousness successfully.\r\n\r\nWe can use the correlation between the BLIRT score and a score on a test of assertiveness to measure convergent validity. The researchers gave a set of tests, including the BLIRT scale and a measure of assertiveness[footnote]The Rathus Assertiveness Schedule[\/footnote] to 1,397 college students. Assertiveness was just one of several traits that were expected to be similar to blirtatiousness.[footnote]Others included self-perceived social confidence, extraversion, impulsivity, and self-liking.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/bb387b3e-d2ab-4fa3-b533-908a49f0d8b8\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nWe want our BLIRT score to have a moderate-to-strong relationship with traits that are similar, but we also want it to be unrelated to traits or abilities that are not similar to blirtatiousness. Tests of <strong>discriminant validity<\/strong> compare our BLIRT score to traits that should have weak or no relationship to blirtatiousness. For example, people who are blirtatious may be good students or poor students or somewhere in-between. Knowing how blirtatious you are should not tell us much about how good a student you are.\r\n\r\nThe researchers compared the BLIRT score of the 1,397 students mentioned earlier to their self-reported GPA.[footnote]Other traits assessed for discriminant validity were agreeableness, conscientiousness, affect intensity (how strongly people were influenced by their emotions).[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f1813d81-7ca3-497d-9399-542c71602e2e\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nDr. Swann\u2019s team compared 21 different traits and abilities to the blirtatiousness scale. Some assessed convergent validity and others tested discriminant validity. The results were generally convincing: BLIRT scores were similar to traits that should be related to blirtatiousness (good convergent validity) and unrelated to traits that should have no connection to blirtatiousness (good discriminant validity).\r\n<h3>Criterion Validity<\/h3>\r\nAnother way to test the validity of a measure is to see if it fits the way people behave in the real world. The BLIRT researchers conducted two studies to see if BLIRT scores fit what we know about people\u2019s personalities. <strong>Criterion validity<\/strong>\u00a0is the relationship between some measure and some real-world outcome.\r\n<h4>Librarians or Salespeople?<\/h4>\r\nWho do you think is more likely to be blirtatious, a salesperson or a librarian? The researchers found thirty employees of car dealerships and libraries in central Texas and gave them the BLIRT scale. Their ages ranged from 20 to 66 (average age = 34.3 years).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nUsing the bar graph below, adjust the bars based on your prediction about who will be more blirtatious. Then click the link below to see if your prediction is correct.\r\n\r\n<center><iframe src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/blirt_graph1.html\" width=\"600\" height=\"370\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/center>[reveal-answer q=\"358679\"]Click here to see the results.[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"358679\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5207\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01033054\/blirt_occupation.png\" alt=\"Bar graph showing salespeople have a BLIRT score of 27 and librarians have a BLIRT score of 23.\" width=\"451\" height=\"291\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nMost people expect salespeople to be more blirtatious than librarians. The researchers explained that we assume that high blirters will look for a work environment that rewards \u201ceffusive, rapid responding,\u201d while low blirters would prefer a workplace that encourages \u201creflection and social inhibition.\u201d As you can see, the results of the study were consistent with this idea: salespeople had significantly higher blirt scores (on the average) than librarians.\r\n<h4>Asian Americans or European Americans?<\/h4>\r\nHow blirtatious a person is can be influenced by a lot of factors, including \u201ccultural norms\u201d\u2014ways of acting that we learn from our families and the people around us as we grow up. Although we shouldn\u2019t overstate the difference, Asian cultures tend to emphasize restraint of emotional expression, while European cultures are more likely to encourage direct and rapid expression.\r\n\r\nThe researchers were able to get BLIRT scores from 2,800 students from European-American cultures and 698 students from Asian-American cultures. What would you predict about the BLIRT scores for these two groups?\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nUsing the bar graph below, adjust the bars based on your prediction about who will be more blirtatious. Then click the link below to see if your prediction is correct.\r\n\r\n<center><iframe src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/blirt_graph2.html\" width=\"600\" height=\"370\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/center>[reveal-answer q=\"358689\"]Click here to see the results.[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"358689\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5208\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01033238\/blirt_cultural_norms.png\" alt=\"Bar Graph showing European Americans with a BLIRT score of 24 and Asian Americans with a BLIRT score of 22\" width=\"578\" height=\"401\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nAs you can see, the results were consistent with the researchers\u2019 expectations. The difference between the groups was small, but statistically significant. The small difference indicates that we shouldn\u2019t turn these modest differences into cultural stereotypes, but the statistically significant difference suggests that cultural experiences may have a real\u2014if modest\u2014effect on people\u2019s blirtatiousness.\r\n<h3>Predictive Validity<\/h3>\r\nAnother way to assess validity of the BLIRT scale is to see if it predicts people\u2019s behavior in specific situations. Based on research about first impressions, the experimenters believed that people who are open and expressive should, in general, make better first impressions than people who are reserved and relatively quiet.\r\n\r\nTo test this hypothesis, the researchers recruited college students and put them into pairs. The members of each pair had a 7-minute \u201cgetting acquainted\u201d telephone conversation. The members of the pairs did not know each other and, in fact, they never saw each other. The participants also completed several personality measures, including the BLIRT scale. Note that they were NOT paired based on their BLIRT scores, so there were different combinations of blirtatiousness across the 32 pairs tested.\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nAfter the conversations, the students rated their conversation partners on several different qualities. For example, who do you think would be perceived as more responsive\u2014a high blirter or a low blirter?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>high blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>low blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>no difference<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"230394\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"230394\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5216 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035726\/blirt_responsive.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the responsive personality measure. High blirters were rated 6.4 and low blirters 5.8.\" width=\"354\" height=\"209\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\nKeeping in mind that this was a first-impression 7-minute conversation, who do you think would be seen as more interesting: a high blirter or a low blirter?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>high blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>low blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>no difference<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"959342\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"959342\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5217 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035819\/blirt_interesting.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the interesting personality measure. High blirters were rated 6.5 and low blirters 6.2.\" width=\"360\" height=\"211\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\nHere are some other qualities that were rated. Make your prediction for each one, and then check out the results.\r\n\r\nWho was rated as more likeable?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>high blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>low blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>no difference<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"496449\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"496449\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5219 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035836\/blirt_likeable.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the likeable personality measure. High blirters were rated 5.8 and low blirters 5.5.\" width=\"355\" height=\"212\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\nWho was rated as someone who \"I'd like to be friends with?\"\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>high blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>low blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>no difference<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"882535\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"882535\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5220 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035855\/blirt_friends.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the friends personality measure. High blirters were rated 5.5 and low blirters 4.7.\" width=\"362\" height=\"209\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\nWho was rated as more intelligent?\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>high blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>low blirter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>no difference<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"560766\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"560766\"]<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5221 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035913\/blirt_intelligent.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the intelligent personality measure. High blirters were rated 5.5 and low blirters 5.\" width=\"353\" height=\"208\" \/>[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Measuring Personality<\/h3>\r\nYou now know more about creating a personality test than most people do. Scales like the BLIRT or the Big Five test you took at the beginning of this exercise are used for serious purposes. Psychological researchers use them in their studies, of course. But psychological tests are also used by companies in their hiring process, by therapists trying to understand their patients, school systems assessing strengths and weaknesses of their students, and even sports teams trying to identify the best athletes to fit their system.\r\n\r\nBlirtatiousness is simply an example of a personality trait, and it is not among the most widely used scales. There are hundreds of personality tests in use today. For example, the Big Five personality factors (conscientiousness, agreeability, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion) are among the most widely used scales, and they have been extensively studied and validated. Other qualities, like intelligence, self-esteem, and general anxiety level, have also been widely studied, and they have well validated measures.\r\n\r\nWe hope that this exercise has given you some insight into the characteristics of a good personality test, and the work that goes into developing a useful scale. Next time you take one, consider the process that went into its development.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]convergent validity:[\/glossary-term][glossary-definition]the relationship between traits that are similar to (but not identical to) the trait being measured[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[glossary-term]criterion validity:[\/glossary-term][glossary-definition]the relationship between some measure and some real-world outcome[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]discriminant validity:[\/glossary-term][glossary-definition]the relationship between some traits that should have weak or no relationship[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]predictive validity:[\/glossary-term][glossary-definition]the relationship between experimental results and the ability to predict people\u2019s behavior in certain situations [\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the complications of developing personality assessments, including the importance of reliability and validity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Creating a Personality Questionnaire<\/h2>\n<p>Psychologists often assess a person\u2019s personality using a questionnaire that is filled in by the person who is being assessed. Such a test is called a \u201cself-report inventory.\u201d To get into the spirit of personality assessment, please complete the personality inventory below. It has only 10 questions. Simply decide how much each pair of words or phrases fits you.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.psytoolkit.org\/c\/3.4.0\/survey?s=7rOq6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Take the TIPI Personality Test<\/a><\/p>\n<p>The questionnaire you just completed is called the TIPI: The Ten-Item Personality Inventory. It was created by University of Texas psychologist Sam Gosling as a very brief measure of five personality characteristics: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experience. These five personality dimensions are called \u201cThe Big Five\u201d and, taken together, they have been found to be an excellent first-level summary of people\u2019s personalities.<\/p>\n<p>Tests of the Big Five personality dimensions are widely used by researchers and by people in business and education who want a general view of a person\u2019s personality. Several different self-report inventories have been developed to measure the Big Five factors, most with 50 or more questions. The TIPI, which you just took, was developed for situations where time is very limited and the tester (usually a researcher) needs a \u201cgood enough\u201d version of the test. One of the longer versions would be used by someone needing a more reliable and nuanced view of someone\u2019s personality.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\n<p>Looking at the TIPI, you might have the impression that creating a personality inventory is pretty easy. You come up with a few obvious questions, find names that fit, and you\u2019re ready to claim you are measuring something about people\u2019s personality. Undoubtedly you can find some \u201cpersonality tests\u201d on the internet that fit this description, but tests created by serious psychologists for use in research or in clinical settings must go through a much more careful development process before they are widely accepted and used. And, even then, the tests continue to be studied, criticized, and revised.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In this exercise, we will look more closely at some of the work that goes into creating a personality inventory or questionnaire. To help you keep your eyes on the <em>process<\/em> of test construction, we want you to think about a personality dimension that is not as obvious as self-esteem or extraversion. We are going to assess <strong>blirtatiousness<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<h2>Part 1: Creating the Blirt Scale<\/h2>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\n<p>One of my closest friends is sometimes annoying and usually entertaining, but he never holds back; you always know what he\u2019s thinking. His wife is kind and friendly, and she is the first to arrive when help is needed, but she hides her feelings and opinions. It is not easy to know what she wants or where she stands.Consider your own closest friends. Where do they fall on the continuum between my friends? Who is open and easy to read, and who is private and guarded?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">One of my closest friends is sometimes annoying and usually entertaining, but they never holds back; you always know what they&#8217;re thinking. Their partner is kind and friendly, and she is first to arrive when help is needed, but she hides her feelings and opinions. It is not easy to know what she wants or where she stands. Consider your own closest friends. Where do they fall on the continuum between my friends? Who is open and easy to read, and who is private and guarded?<\/div>\n<p>Back in the early 2000s, social psychologist William Swann and his colleagues became interested in the impact of self-disclosure\u2014the process of communicating information about ourselves to other people\u2014on personal relationships. In one paper, the researchers wrote about \u201cblirters\u201d and \u201cbrooders\u201d\u2014good labels for my two friends. Early in their research, the psychologists realized that the story was not going to be simple. Enthusiastic self-disclosure (blirting) is sometimes good for relationships and sometimes bad, and the same is true about reluctance to self-disclose (brooding).<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">The researchers also realized that they didn\u2019t really have a good way to sort people out on the self-disclosure continuum. Self-selection (\u201cI\u2019m very open.\u201d \u201cI\u2019m very private.\u201d) often doesn\u2019t fit with how other people\u2014including your friends\u2014see you. And researchers\u2019 first impressions (\u201cHe seems like a blirter.&#8221; &#8220;She seems like a brooder.\u201d) are extremely unreliable. They needed a better way to measure people\u2019s willingness to self-disclose.<\/div>\n<p>In this exercise, we\u2019re going to give you a small taste of the process of creating a personality questionnaire. To do this, we are going to recreate Dr. Swann\u2019s \u201cblirtatiousness\u201d test that is now used by researchers studying self-disclosure in personal relationships.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">By the way, even serious psychologists seem to want to give their tests interesting names, so the name BLIRT stands for Brief Loquaciousness and Interpersonal Responsiveness Test.<\/div>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\"><em>By the way, even serious psychologists seem to want to give their tests interesting names, so the name BLIRT stands for Brief Loquaciousness and Interpersonal Responsiveness Test.<\/em><\/div>\n<h3>Scale Construction: What Questions Should We Use?<\/h3>\n<p>The first step in constructing a test or scale to measure some personal characteristic is to be clear about what it is you are measuring. In their papers, Dr. Swann and his colleagues discuss what they mean by \u201cblirtatiousness\u201d in detail, but here the following definition should be enough: <em>Blirtatiousness is the extent to which people respond to friends and partners quickly and effusively.\u00a0<\/em>A person is effusive if they excitedly show and express emotion.<\/p>\n<p>One thing to notice about this definition is that it focuses on behavior more than inner feelings. It is the behaviors of our friends and partners that affect us, regardless of their intentions and motivations, so that is what the BLIRT scale is all about.<\/p>\n<p>Obviously, the first step in creating a questionnaire is writing the questions, but this is not as straightforward as it seems. Will they be open-ended (e.g., \u201cHow open-minded are you? ___). Probably not, as they are hard to score. Forced choice, where a person chooses one of several options, is a better choice. Some forced-choice questions make you give rankings, or\u00a0others may have you choose from options, like these questions from the <a href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/NPI\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Narcissistic Personality Inventory<\/a>:<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5042\" style=\"width: 668px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175056\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.50.27-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5042\" class=\"wp-image-5042 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175056\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.50.27-PM.png\" alt=\"Sample text from the narcissistic personality inventory that has people choose which statement best identifies them: &quot;I have a natural talent for influencing people&quot; or &quot;I am not good an influencing people.&quot; and &quot;Modesty doesn't become me&quot; or &quot;I am essentially a modest person.&quot;\" width=\"658\" height=\"182\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5042\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The questions from Terry Raskin&#8217;s\u00a0Narcissistic Personality Inventory force participants to choose between two options.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Another common forced-choice format is the Likert<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The man who created the scale pronounced his name as LICK-ert. Many psychologists\u2014maybe even your instructor\u2014pronounce it LIKE-ert. It probably doesn\u2019t matter much which way you say the name.\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-1\" href=\"#footnote-4856-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> scale, which is composed of a statement (not a question) followed by 5 or 7 numbers allowing you to indicate your level of agreement with the statement. For example, here is an item from the <a href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/RSE.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Rosenberg Self-Esteem inventory<\/a>:<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5044\" style=\"width: 774px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175626\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.56.09-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5044\" class=\"wp-image-5044 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24175626\/Screen-Shot-2018-10-24-at-12.56.09-PM.png\" alt=\"Sample text from a personality inventory that says &quot;I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.&quot; Then a person can choose either strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.\" width=\"764\" height=\"108\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5044\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Morris Rosenberg&#8217;s questions on the self-esteem inventory utilize the Likert scale.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Dr. Swann and his team chose a 7-point Likert format to measure blirtatiousness. To do this, they needed to write clear, simple statements that people could agree or disagree with, where different levels of agreement were possible.<\/p>\n<p>We aren\u2019t going to ask you to write any questions, but join the test-development team by looking at the eight statements below. Choose four that you think would be the best items to include in the BLIRT scale.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290550739684166808\/embed\" width=\"618\" height=\"520\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<p>When they were developing the scale, Dr. Swann and his team wrote dozens of questions and then pared them down to 20. Then, they got 237 undergraduates to rate the 20 questions for how well they fit the qualities that the BLIRT scale was trying to measure.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Note: Notice that the four items from the BLIRT are about what you DO. They aren\u2019t about your beliefs (option 1), how you think other people see you (option 3), opinions about yourself (option 4), or what you think about other people (option 6).\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-2\" href=\"#footnote-4856-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Questionnaire writers have strategies to encourage people to read the statements carefully. For example, they often write \u201creverse scoring\u201d items. To show what this means, just below is the 7-point Likert scale used with the Blirtatiousness questionnaire. Below that, you will see two statements. Look at how the statements and the Likert scale fit together.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5045\" style=\"width: 495px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24180330\/likert.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5045\" class=\"wp-image-5045 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/24180330\/likert.png\" alt=\"Likert scale showing 1 as strongly disagree, then counting up so that 4 is neither agree nor disagree and 7 is strongly agree.\" width=\"485\" height=\"72\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5045\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> A Likert scale.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<ol>\n<li>I speak my mind as soon as a thought enters my head.\n<ul>\n<li>For this question, 1 means not blirtatious and 7 means very blirtatious.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>I don&#8217;t speak my mind as soon as a thought enters my head.\n<ul>\n<li>For this question, 1 means very blirtatious and 7 means not blirtatious.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Dr. Swann and his team chose 8 items for the BLIRT scale and half were worded so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious, and half so that high numbers mean less blirtatious. After the test, a process called \u201creverse scoring\u201d put all the questions back on the same scale, so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Reverse scoring is simple: 7 becomes 1, 6 becomes 2, 5 becomes 3, 4 stays 4, 3 becomes 5, 2 becomes 6, and 1 becomes 7. Only the 4 items with the reverse wording are rescored this way. The goal is to make it so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious for all the items.\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-3\" href=\"#footnote-4856-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>At this point in the test-creation process, Dr. Swann and his team settled on eight statements that seemed to measure BLIRT. They were ready to administer the test, but before they could praise the test and its effectiveness, they needed to be sure of a few things: the questions need to work together as a set, the test must be reliable, and the test must be valid.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>The questions must work together as a set.<\/strong> In other words, we want to be sure that the 8 items are all giving us responses about the same quality (blirtatiousness) and that the responses people are giving are consistent with one another.\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">You might think that a single question would be enough to measure blirtatiousness. Why ask 8 questions when one would do? But research has shown that asking variations on the same question 8 or 10 different times gives a more stable measure. The questions must be slightly different (enough to make people think carefully), but not too different (so they measure different things).<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The researchers administered the BLIRT to 1,137 students and used statistical procedures<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Cronbach\u2019s alpha and Factor Analysis\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-4\" href=\"#footnote-4856-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> to be sure that the 8 items in the scale worked together. The results indicated that the 8 items on the scale were consistent with each other in measuring the same psychological quality.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\"><strong>The test must be reliable<\/strong>. The word \u201creliability\u201d means \u201cconsistent.\u201d We should be able to give you a test of some quality (e.g., how extraverted you are) and then give you that same test again two months later, and your scores should be pretty similar. This is important for what is called \u201cstable traits.\u201d Obviously, some psychological qualities, like moods, change all the time and we would not expect consistency. But, blirtatiousness should be a stable trait.\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\">One common way to measure reliability of a test is a process called \u201ctest-retest reliability.\u201d It is as simple as it sounds: you give the test, wait some period of time, and give again to the same people.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_e8990c25-b5a7-4d1f-a00f-5597ea2463dd\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/e8990c25-b5a7-4d1f-a00f-5597ea2463dd?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_e8990c25-b5a7-4d1f-a00f-5597ea2463dd\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>The test must be valid.<\/strong> Believe it or not, after all this work, we still don\u2019t know if the BLIRT scale is VALID. Validity is a question of whether or not we are measuring the thing we are trying to measure. Reliability doesn\u2019t tell us if a scale is valid; reliability simply means that we get consistent answers. So how can we figure out if our test is valid or not? We\u2019ll go into that in the next section.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/content\/1290477372809028568\/embed\" width=\"1088\" height=\"637\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><script src=\"https:\/\/lumenlearning.h5p.com\/js\/h5p-resizer.js\" charset=\"UTF-8\"><\/script><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The exercises you just reviewed give you a taste of the initial steps in creating a personality inventory. We started by carefully defining the personality trait. We had to figure out how we were going to ask our questions, and we chose a Likert scale. The questions had to be carefully written to be clear and focused on the trait we are studying: blirtatiousness. Writing effective items usually involves a process of writing, testing, selection, rewriting, retesting, and selecting again, until we are satisfied that our questions are good. Once we have compiled a test&#8211;at least a candidate for the test&#8211;we need to administer it to people to see if it is reliable and internally consistent (i.e., that all the questions are measuring the same trait).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Measuring Personality<\/h3>\n<p>Before you go on, now is a good time to measure <em>your<\/em> blirtatiousness. Follow the link below to find out if you are a blirter or a brooder.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/labs.la.utexas.edu\/swann\/the-blirt\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Take the Blirt Test<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Part 2: Does the Blirt Scale Measure What It Claims to Measure?<\/h2>\n<p>No one wants to use a scale that hasn\u2019t been shown to be valid. And validity is really hard to show.<\/p>\n<h3>Analyzing Validity<\/h3>\n<p>Here is our challenge. Remember that blirtatiousness is the extent to which people respond to friends and partners quickly and effusively. Our questions may look good, but we need evidence that the numbers we get actually measure the trait.<\/p>\n<p>There is no one way to determine the validity of a scale. Test developers like Dr. Swann usually take several different approaches. They may compare the test results with other personality tests of similar traits (convergent validity), or compare scores from the BLIRT test with other dissimilar tests (discriminant validity). Researchers may also compare the results of the BLIRT test to real-world outcomes (criterion validity), or see if the results work to predict people\u2019s behavior in certain situations (predictive validity).<\/p>\n<p>In the sections below, we will peek at some studies that try to assess these different aspects of validity.<\/p>\n<h3>Convergent and Discriminant Validity<\/h3>\n<p>One way to test the validity of a test is to compare it to results from tests of other traits for which validated tests already exist. There are two types of comparisons that researchers look for when they validate a test. One is called <em>convergent validity<\/em>\u00a0and the other is called <em>discriminant validity<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>When testing for <strong>convergent validity<\/strong>, the researcher looks for other traits that are similar to (but not identical to) the trait they are measuring. For example, we are studying blirtatiousness. It would be reasonable to think that a person who is blirtatious is also assertive. The two traits\u2014blirtatiousness and assertiveness\u2014are not the same, but they are certainly related. If our blirtatiousness scale is not at all related to assertiveness, then we should be worried that we are not really measuring blirtatiousness successfully.<\/p>\n<p>We can use the correlation between the BLIRT score and a score on a test of assertiveness to measure convergent validity. The researchers gave a set of tests, including the BLIRT scale and a measure of assertiveness<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Rathus Assertiveness Schedule\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-5\" href=\"#footnote-4856-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> to 1,397 college students. Assertiveness was just one of several traits that were expected to be similar to blirtatiousness.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Others included self-perceived social confidence, extraversion, impulsivity, and self-liking.\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-6\" href=\"#footnote-4856-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_bb387b3e-d2ab-4fa3-b533-908a49f0d8b8\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/bb387b3e-d2ab-4fa3-b533-908a49f0d8b8?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_bb387b3e-d2ab-4fa3-b533-908a49f0d8b8\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>We want our BLIRT score to have a moderate-to-strong relationship with traits that are similar, but we also want it to be unrelated to traits or abilities that are not similar to blirtatiousness. Tests of <strong>discriminant validity<\/strong> compare our BLIRT score to traits that should have weak or no relationship to blirtatiousness. For example, people who are blirtatious may be good students or poor students or somewhere in-between. Knowing how blirtatious you are should not tell us much about how good a student you are.<\/p>\n<p>The researchers compared the BLIRT score of the 1,397 students mentioned earlier to their self-reported GPA.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Other traits assessed for discriminant validity were agreeableness, conscientiousness, affect intensity (how strongly people were influenced by their emotions).\" id=\"return-footnote-4856-7\" href=\"#footnote-4856-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"assessment_practice_f1813d81-7ca3-497d-9399-542c71602e2e\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assess.lumenlearning.com\/practice\/f1813d81-7ca3-497d-9399-542c71602e2e?iframe_resize_id=assessment_practice_id_f1813d81-7ca3-497d-9399-542c71602e2e\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:300px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Dr. Swann\u2019s team compared 21 different traits and abilities to the blirtatiousness scale. Some assessed convergent validity and others tested discriminant validity. The results were generally convincing: BLIRT scores were similar to traits that should be related to blirtatiousness (good convergent validity) and unrelated to traits that should have no connection to blirtatiousness (good discriminant validity).<\/p>\n<h3>Criterion Validity<\/h3>\n<p>Another way to test the validity of a measure is to see if it fits the way people behave in the real world. The BLIRT researchers conducted two studies to see if BLIRT scores fit what we know about people\u2019s personalities. <strong>Criterion validity<\/strong>\u00a0is the relationship between some measure and some real-world outcome.<\/p>\n<h4>Librarians or Salespeople?<\/h4>\n<p>Who do you think is more likely to be blirtatious, a salesperson or a librarian? The researchers found thirty employees of car dealerships and libraries in central Texas and gave them the BLIRT scale. Their ages ranged from 20 to 66 (average age = 34.3 years).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>Using the bar graph below, adjust the bars based on your prediction about who will be more blirtatious. Then click the link below to see if your prediction is correct.<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/blirt_graph1.html\" width=\"600\" height=\"370\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q358679\">Click here to see the results.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q358679\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5207\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01033054\/blirt_occupation.png\" alt=\"Bar graph showing salespeople have a BLIRT score of 27 and librarians have a BLIRT score of 23.\" width=\"451\" height=\"291\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Most people expect salespeople to be more blirtatious than librarians. The researchers explained that we assume that high blirters will look for a work environment that rewards \u201ceffusive, rapid responding,\u201d while low blirters would prefer a workplace that encourages \u201creflection and social inhibition.\u201d As you can see, the results of the study were consistent with this idea: salespeople had significantly higher blirt scores (on the average) than librarians.<\/p>\n<h4>Asian Americans or European Americans?<\/h4>\n<p>How blirtatious a person is can be influenced by a lot of factors, including \u201ccultural norms\u201d\u2014ways of acting that we learn from our families and the people around us as we grow up. Although we shouldn\u2019t overstate the difference, Asian cultures tend to emphasize restraint of emotional expression, while European cultures are more likely to encourage direct and rapid expression.<\/p>\n<p>The researchers were able to get BLIRT scores from 2,800 students from European-American cultures and 698 students from Asian-American cultures. What would you predict about the BLIRT scores for these two groups?<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>Using the bar graph below, adjust the bars based on your prediction about who will be more blirtatious. Then click the link below to see if your prediction is correct.<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: center;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/oerfiles\/Psychology\/interactives\/blirt_graph2.html\" width=\"600\" height=\"370\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q358689\">Click here to see the results.<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q358689\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5208\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01033238\/blirt_cultural_norms.png\" alt=\"Bar Graph showing European Americans with a BLIRT score of 24 and Asian Americans with a BLIRT score of 22\" width=\"578\" height=\"401\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>As you can see, the results were consistent with the researchers\u2019 expectations. The difference between the groups was small, but statistically significant. The small difference indicates that we shouldn\u2019t turn these modest differences into cultural stereotypes, but the statistically significant difference suggests that cultural experiences may have a real\u2014if modest\u2014effect on people\u2019s blirtatiousness.<\/p>\n<h3>Predictive Validity<\/h3>\n<p>Another way to assess validity of the BLIRT scale is to see if it predicts people\u2019s behavior in specific situations. Based on research about first impressions, the experimenters believed that people who are open and expressive should, in general, make better first impressions than people who are reserved and relatively quiet.<\/p>\n<p>To test this hypothesis, the researchers recruited college students and put them into pairs. The members of each pair had a 7-minute \u201cgetting acquainted\u201d telephone conversation. The members of the pairs did not know each other and, in fact, they never saw each other. The participants also completed several personality measures, including the BLIRT scale. Note that they were NOT paired based on their BLIRT scores, so there were different combinations of blirtatiousness across the 32 pairs tested.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ab-test-original\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>After the conversations, the students rated their conversation partners on several different qualities. For example, who do you think would be perceived as more responsive\u2014a high blirter or a low blirter?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>high blirter<\/li>\n<li>low blirter<\/li>\n<li>no difference<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q230394\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q230394\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5216 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035726\/blirt_responsive.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the responsive personality measure. High blirters were rated 6.4 and low blirters 5.8.\" width=\"354\" height=\"209\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Keeping in mind that this was a first-impression 7-minute conversation, who do you think would be seen as more interesting: a high blirter or a low blirter?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>high blirter<\/li>\n<li>low blirter<\/li>\n<li>no difference<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q959342\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q959342\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5217 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035819\/blirt_interesting.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the interesting personality measure. High blirters were rated 6.5 and low blirters 6.2.\" width=\"360\" height=\"211\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Here are some other qualities that were rated. Make your prediction for each one, and then check out the results.<\/p>\n<p>Who was rated as more likeable?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>high blirter<\/li>\n<li>low blirter<\/li>\n<li>no difference<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q496449\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q496449\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5219 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035836\/blirt_likeable.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the likeable personality measure. High blirters were rated 5.8 and low blirters 5.5.\" width=\"355\" height=\"212\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Who was rated as someone who &#8220;I&#8217;d like to be friends with?&#8221;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>high blirter<\/li>\n<li>low blirter<\/li>\n<li>no difference<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q882535\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q882535\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5220 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035855\/blirt_friends.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the friends personality measure. High blirters were rated 5.5 and low blirters 4.7.\" width=\"362\" height=\"209\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Who was rated as more intelligent?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>high blirter<\/li>\n<li>low blirter<\/li>\n<li>no difference<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q560766\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q560766\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-5221 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2018\/03\/01035913\/blirt_intelligent.png\" alt=\"bar graph showing how participants were rated by their partners on the intelligent personality measure. High blirters were rated 5.5 and low blirters 5.\" width=\"353\" height=\"208\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Measuring Personality<\/h3>\n<p>You now know more about creating a personality test than most people do. Scales like the BLIRT or the Big Five test you took at the beginning of this exercise are used for serious purposes. Psychological researchers use them in their studies, of course. But psychological tests are also used by companies in their hiring process, by therapists trying to understand their patients, school systems assessing strengths and weaknesses of their students, and even sports teams trying to identify the best athletes to fit their system.<\/p>\n<p>Blirtatiousness is simply an example of a personality trait, and it is not among the most widely used scales. There are hundreds of personality tests in use today. For example, the Big Five personality factors (conscientiousness, agreeability, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extraversion) are among the most widely used scales, and they have been extensively studied and validated. Other qualities, like intelligence, self-esteem, and general anxiety level, have also been widely studied, and they have well validated measures.<\/p>\n<p>We hope that this exercise has given you some insight into the characteristics of a good personality test, and the work that goes into developing a useful scale. Next time you take one, consider the process that went into its development.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>convergent validity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the relationship between traits that are similar to (but not identical to) the trait being measured<\/dd>\n<dt>criterion validity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the relationship between some measure and some real-world outcome<\/dd>\n<dt>discriminant validity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the relationship between some traits that should have weak or no relationship<\/dd>\n<dt>predictive validity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the relationship between experimental results and the ability to predict people\u2019s behavior in certain situations <\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4856\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psychology in Real Life: Blirtatiousness, Questionnaires, and Validity. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Patrick Carroll for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Sample of narcissistic personality disorder. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Raskin, R.; Terry, H. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/NPI\/\">https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/NPI\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><li>Sample of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem inventory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Morris Rosenberg. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/RSE.php\">https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/RSE.php<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Society and the adolescent self-image. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-4856-1\">The man who created the scale pronounced his name as LICK-ert. Many psychologists\u2014maybe even your instructor\u2014pronounce it LIKE-ert. It probably doesn\u2019t matter much which way you say the name. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4856-2\">Note: Notice that the four items from the BLIRT are about what you DO. They aren\u2019t about your beliefs (option 1), how you think other people see you (option 3), opinions about yourself (option 4), or what you think about other people (option 6). <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4856-3\">Reverse scoring is simple: 7 becomes 1, 6 becomes 2, 5 becomes 3, 4 stays 4, 3 becomes 5, 2 becomes 6, and 1 becomes 7. Only the 4 items with the reverse wording are rescored this way. The goal is to make it so that higher numbers mean more blirtatious for all the items. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4856-4\">Cronbach\u2019s alpha and Factor Analysis <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4856-5\">The Rathus Assertiveness Schedule <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4856-6\">Others included self-perceived social confidence, extraversion, impulsivity, and self-liking. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4856-7\">Other traits assessed for discriminant validity were agreeableness, conscientiousness, affect intensity (how strongly people were influenced by their emotions). <a href=\"#return-footnote-4856-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Psychology in Real Life: Blirtatiousness, Questionnaires, and Validity\",\"author\":\"Patrick Carroll for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Sample of narcissistic personality disorder\",\"author\":\"Raskin, R.; Terry, H\",\"organization\":\"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/NPI\/\",\"project\":\"A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Sample of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem inventory\",\"author\":\"Morris Rosenberg\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openpsychometrics.org\/tests\/RSE.php\",\"project\":\"Society and the adolescent self-image\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"bb18e8bc-6c07-4a5f-8f24-b1deb85dd79e, d43d65d3-3e3b-466f-9b42-bfeabc91879d","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4856","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":521,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4856","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":58,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4856\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8319,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4856\/revisions\/8319"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/521"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4856\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4856"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4856"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4856"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4856"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}