{"id":145,"date":"2015-05-23T03:33:21","date_gmt":"2015-05-23T03:33:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masterysoc1x6xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=145"},"modified":"2015-06-19T21:57:08","modified_gmt":"2015-06-19T21:57:08","slug":"global-implications-of-media-and-technology","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/global-implications-of-media-and-technology\/","title":{"raw":"Reading: Global Implications of Media and Technology","rendered":"Reading: Global Implications of Media and Technology"},"content":{"raw":"<div data-type=\"abstract\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Explain the advantages and concerns of media globalization<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Understand the globalization of technology<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169033069220\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_08_03_01b.jpg\" alt=\"A Twitter update page from a U.S. photojournalist in Cairo, Egypt, during the recent uprising is shown.\" width=\"300\" height=\"420\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> These Twitter updates\u2014a revolution in real time\u2014show the role social media can play on the political stage. (Photo courtesy of Cambodia4kidsorg\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138349\">Technology, and increasingly media, has always driven globalization. In a landmark book, Thomas Friedman (2005), identified several ways in which technology \u201cflattened\u201d the globe and contributed to our global economy. The first edition of <em data-effect=\"italics\">The World Is Flat<\/em>, written in 2005, posits that core economic concepts were changed by personal computing and high-speed Internet. Access to these two technological shifts has allowed core-nation corporations to recruit workers in call centers located in China or India. Using examples like a Midwestern U.S. woman who runs a business from her home via the call centers of Bangalore, India, Friedman warns that this new world order will exist whether core-nation businesses are ready or not, and that in order to keep its key economic role in the world, the United States will need to pay attention to how it prepares workers of the twenty-first century for this dynamic.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033102851\">Of course not everyone agrees with Friedman\u2019s theory. Many economists pointed out that in reality innovation, economic activity, and population still gather in geographically attractive areas, and they continue to create economic peaks and valleys, which are by no means flattened out to mean equality for all. China\u2019s hugely innovative and powerful cities of Shanghai and Beijing are worlds away from the rural squalor of the country\u2019s poorest denizens.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033101836\">It is worth noting that Friedman is an economist, not a sociologist. His work focuses on the economic gains and risks this new world order entails. In this section, we will look more closely at how media globalization and technological globalization play out in a sociological perspective. As the names suggest, <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033111843\" data-type=\"term\">media globalization<\/span> is the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas, while <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033061676\" data-type=\"term\">technological globalization<\/span> refers to the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1483182\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Media Globalization<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033101846\">Lyons (2005) suggests that multinational corporations are the primary vehicle of media globalization, and these corporations control global mass-media content and distribution (Compaine 2005). It is true, when looking at who controls which media outlets, that there are fewer independent news sources as larger and larger conglomerates develop. The United States offers about 1,500 newspapers, 2,600 book publishers, and an equal number of television stations, plus 6,000 magazines and a whopping 10,000 radio outlets (Bagdikian 2004).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033103548\">On the surface, there is endless opportunity to find diverse media outlets. But the numbers are misleading. <strong><span data-type=\"term\">Media consolidation<\/span><\/strong> is a process in which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets. This creates an <strong><span data-type=\"term\">oligopoly<\/span><\/strong> in which a few firms dominate the media marketplace. In 1983, a mere 50 corporations owned the bulk of mass-media outlets. Today in the United States (which has no government-owned media) just five companies control 90 percent of media outlets (McChesney 1999). Ranked by 2014 company revenue, Comcast is the biggest, followed by the Disney Corporation, Time Warner, CBS, and Viacom (Time.com 2014). What impact does this consolidation have on the type of information to which the U.S. public is exposed? Does media consolidation deprive the public of multiple viewpoints and limit its discourse to the information and opinions shared by a few sources? Why does it matter?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-339\">Monopolies matter because less competition typically means consumers are less well served since dissenting opinions or diverse viewpoints are less likely to be found. Media consolidation results in the following dysfunctions. First, consolidated media owes more to its stockholders than to the public. Publicly traded Fortune 500 companies must pay more attention to their profitability and to government regulators than to the public's right to know. The few companies that control most of the media, because they are owned by the power elite, represent the political and social interests of only a small minority. In an oligopoly there are fewer incentives to innovate, improve services, or decrease prices.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033059173\">While some social scientists predicted that the increase in media forms would create a global village (McLuhan 1964), current research suggests that the public sphere accessing the global village will tend to be rich, Caucasoid, and English-speaking (Jan 2009). As shown by the spring 2011 uprisings throughout the Arab world, technology really does offer a window into the news of the world. For example, here in the United States we saw internet updates of Egyptian events in real time, with people tweeting, posting, and blogging on the ground in Tahrir Square.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033059175\">Still, there is no question that the exchange of technology from core nations to peripheral and semi-peripheral ones leads to a number of complex issues. For instance, someone using a conflict theorist approach might focus on how much political ideology and cultural colonialism occurs with technological growth. In theory at least, technological innovations are ideology-free; a fiber optic cable is the same in a Muslim country as a secular one, a communist country or a capitalist one. But those who bring technology to less-developed nations\u2014whether they are nongovernment organizations, businesses, or governments\u2014usually have an agenda. A functionalist, in contrast, might focus on the ways technology creates new means to share information about successful crop-growing programs, or on the economic benefits of opening a new market for cell phone use. Either way, cultural and societal assumptions and norms are being delivered along with those high-speed wires.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033062275\">Cultural and ideological bias are not the only risks of media globalization. In addition to the risk of cultural imperialism and the loss of local culture, other problems come with the benefits of a more interconnected globe. One risk is the potential for censoring by national governments that let in only the information and media they feel serve their message, as is occurring in China. In addition, core nations such as the United States risk the use of international media by criminals to circumvent local laws against socially deviant and dangerous behaviors such as gambling, child pornography, and the sex trade. Offshore or international web sites allow U.S. citizens (and others) to seek out whatever illegal or illicit information they want, from twenty-four hour online gambling sites that do not require proof of age, to sites that sell child pornography. These examples illustrate the societal risks of unfettered information flow.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1690744\" class=\"note sociology-big-picture textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<h3 class=\"title\" data-type=\"title\">China and the Internet: An Uncomfortable Friendship<\/h3>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169033102907\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_08_03_02a.jpg\" alt=\"Many people sitting in chairs are shown staring at computer screens in a restaurant\/caf\u00e9 setting. Chinese posters can also be seen. \" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> What information is accessible to these patrons of an internet caf\u00e9 in China? What is censored from their view? (Photo Courtesy of Kai Hendry\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033056786\">In the United States, the Internet is used to access illegal gambling and pornography sites, as well as to research stocks, crowd-source what car to buy, or keep in touch with childhood friends. Can we allow one or more of those activities, while restricting the rest? And who decides what needs restricting? In a country with democratic principles and an underlying belief in free-market capitalism, the answer is decided in the court system. But globally, the questions\u2013\u2013and the government\u2019s responses\u2013\u2013are very different.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033056789\">China is in many ways the global poster child for the uncomfortable relationship between Internet freedom and government control. China, which is a country with a tight rein on the dissemination of information, has long worked to suppress what it calls \u201charmful information,\u201d including dissent concerning government politics, dialogue about China\u2019s role in Tibet, or criticism of the government\u2019s handling of events.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033056791\">With sites like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube blocked in China, the nation\u2019s Internet users\u2013\u2013some 500 million strong in 2011\u2013\u2013turn to local media companies for their needs. Renren.com is China\u2019s answer to Facebook. Perhaps more importantly from a social-change perspective, Sina Weibo is China\u2019s version of Twitter. Microblogging, or <em data-effect=\"italics\">Weibo<\/em>, acts like Twitter in that users can post short messages that can be read by their subscribers. And because these services move so quickly and with such wide scope, it is difficult for government overseers to keep up. This tool was used to criticize government response to a deadly rail crash and to protest a chemical plant. It was also credited with the government\u2019s decision to report more accurately on the air pollution in Beijing, which occurred after a high-profile campaign by a well-known property developer (Pierson 2012).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033064910\">There is no question of China\u2019s authoritarian government ruling over this new form of Internet communication. The nation blocks the use of certain terms, such as human rights, and passes new laws that require people to register with their real names and make it more dangerous to criticize government actions. Indeed, fifty-six-year-old microblogger Wang Lihong was recently sentenced to nine months in prison for \u201cstirring up trouble,\u201d as her government described her work helping people with government grievances (Bristow 2011). But the government cannot shut down this flow of information completely. Foreign companies, seeking to engage with the increasingly important Chinese consumer market, have their own accounts: the NBA has more than 5 million followers, and Tom Cruise\u2019s Weibo account boasts almost 3 million followers (Zhang 2011). The government, too, uses Weibo to get its own message across. As the millennium progresses, China\u2019s approach to social media and the freedoms it offers will be watched anxiously\u2013\u2013on Sina Weibo and beyond\u2013\u2013by the rest of the world.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1492796\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Technological Globalization<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033121230\">Technological globalization is speeded in large part by <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033121233\" data-type=\"term\">technological diffusion<\/span>, the spread of technology across borders. In the last two decades, there has been rapid improvement in the spread of technology to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations, and a 2008 World Bank report discusses both the benefits and ongoing challenges of this diffusion. In general, the report found that technological progress and economic growth rates were linked, and that the rise in technological progress has helped improve the situations of many living in absolute poverty (World Bank 2008). The report recognizes that rural and low-tech products such as corn can benefit from new technological innovations, and that, conversely, technologies like mobile banking can aid those whose rural existence consists of low-tech market vending. In addition, technological advances in areas like mobile phones can lead to competition, lowered prices, and concurrent improvements in related areas such as mobile banking and information sharing.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138363\">However, the same patterns of social inequality that create a digital divide in the United States also create digital divides within peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. While the growth of technology use among countries has increased dramatically over the past several decades, the spread of technology within countries is significantly slower among peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. In these countries, far fewer people have the training and skills to take advantage of new technology, let alone access it. Technological access tends to be clustered around urban areas and leaves out vast swaths of peripheral-nation citizens. While the diffusion of information technologies has the potential to resolve many global social problems, it is often the population most in need that is most affected by the digital divide. For example, technology to purify water could save many lives, but the villages in peripheral nations most in need of water purification don\u2019t have access to the technology, the funds to purchase it, or the technological comfort level to introduce it as a solution.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1485546\" class=\"note sociology-real-world textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<h3 class=\"title\" data-type=\"title\">The Mighty Cell Phone: How Mobile Phones Are Impacting Sub-Saharan Africa<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138998\">Many of Africa\u2019s poorest countries suffer from a marked lack of infrastructure including poor roads, limited electricity, and minimal access to education and telephones. But while landline use has not changed appreciably during the past ten years, there\u2019s been a fivefold increase in mobile phone access; more than a third of people in Sub-Saharan Africa have the ability to access a mobile phone (Katine 2010). Even more can use a \u201cvillage phone\u201d\u2014through a shared-phone program created by the Grameen Foundation. With access to mobile phone technology, a host of benefits become available that have the potential to change the dynamics in these poorest nations. Sometimes that change is as simple as being able to make a phone call to neighboring market towns. By finding out which markets have vendors interested in their goods, fishers and farmers can ensure they travel to the market that will serve them best and avoid a wasted trip. Others can use mobile phones and some of the emerging money-sending systems to securely send money to a family member or business partner elsewhere (Katine 2010).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100160\">These shared-phone programs are often funded by businesses like Germany\u2019s Vodafone or Britain\u2019s Masbabi, which hope to gain market share in the region. Phone giant Nokia points out that there are 4 billion mobile phone users worldwide\u2014that\u2019s more than twice as many people as have bank accounts\u2014meaning there is ripe opportunity to connect banking companies with people who need their services (ITU Telecom 2009). Not all access is corporate-based, however. Other programs are funded by business organizations that seek to help peripheral nations with tools for innovation and entrepreneurship.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100167\">But this wave of innovation and potential business comes with costs. There is, certainly, the risk of cultural imperialism, and the assumption that core nations (and core-nation multinationals) know what is best for those struggling in the world\u2019s poorest communities. Whether well intentioned or not, the vision of a continent of Africans successfully chatting on their iPhone may not be ideal. Like all aspects of global inequity, access to technology in Africa requires more than just foreign investment. There must be a concerted effort to ensure the benefits of technology get to where they are needed most.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1370116\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033121259\">Technology drives globalization, but what that means can be hard to decipher. While some economists see technological advances leading to a more level playing field where anyone anywhere can be a global contender, the reality is that opportunity still clusters in geographically advantaged areas. Still, technological diffusion has led to the spread of more and more technology across borders into peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. However, true technological global equality is a long way off.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.org\/assessments\/1126\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1703381\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1806642\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1704148\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138476\">Do you believe that technology has indeed flattened the world in terms of providing opportunity? Why, or why not? Give examples to support your reason.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1324789\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1561365\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138486\">Where do you get your news? Is it owned by a large conglomerate (you can do a web search and find out!)? Does it matter to you who owns your local news outlets? Why, or why not?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1561428\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1255743\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100690\">Who do you think is most likely to bring innovation and technology (like cell phone businesses) to Sub-Saharan Africa: nonprofit organizations, governments, or businesses? Why?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1388747\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164865302866\" class=\"definition\"><dt>media consolidation<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1164857873326\">a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033139235\" class=\"definition\"><dt>media globalization<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1702674\">the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"fs-id1164865350806\" class=\"definition\"><dt>oligopoly<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1164857916993\">a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033139238\" class=\"definition\"><dt>technological diffusion<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id855495\">the spread of technology across borders<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033063554\" class=\"definition\"><dt>technological globalization<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1730247\">the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology<\/dd><\/dl>\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100704\">Check out more on the global digital divide here: <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Global_Digital_Divide\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Global_Digital_Divide<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1569370\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1870268\">Acker, Jenny C., and Isaac M. Mbiti. 2010. \u201cMobile Phones and Economic Development in Africa.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Journal of Economic Perspectives<\/em> 24(3):207\u2013232. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1257\/jep.24.3.207\">[link]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1257\/jep.24.3.207\" target=\"_blank\">pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1257\/jep.24.3.207<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2119020\">Bagdikian, Ben H. 2004. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The New Media Monopoly<\/em>. Boston, MA: Beacon Press Books.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1489944\">Bristow, Michael. 2011. \u201cCan China Control Social Media Revolution?\u201d BBC News China, November 2. Retrieved January 14, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-pacific-15383756\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-pacific-15383756<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2125244\">Compaine, B. 2005. \u201cGlobal Media.\u201d Pp. 97-101 in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Living in the Information Age: A New Media Reader<\/em> Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1760080\">Friedman, Thomas. 2005. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century<\/em>. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1612473\">ITU News. 2009. \u201cITU Telecom World 2009: Special Report: Reflecting New Needs and Realities.\u201d November. Retrieved January 14, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.itu.int\/net\/itunews\/issues\/2009\/09\/26.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.itu.int\/net\/itunews\/issues\/2009\/09\/26.aspx<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1990324\">Jan, Mirza. 2009. \u201cGlobalization of Media: Key Issues and Dimensions.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">European Journal of Scientific Research<\/em> 29:66\u201375.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1506048\">Katine Chronicles Blog. 2010. \u201cAre Mobile Phones Africa\u2019s Silver Bullet?\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Guardian<\/em>, January 14. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/katine\/katine-chronicles-blog?page=6\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/katine\/katine-chronicles-blog?page=6<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2133084\">Ma, Damien. 2011. \u201c2011: When Chinese Social Media Found Its Legs.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Atlantic<\/em>, December 18. Retrieved January 15, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/international\/archive\/2011\/12\/2011-when-chinese-social-media-found-its-legs\/250083\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/international\/archive\/2011\/12\/2011-when-chinese-social-media-found-its-legs\/250083\/<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1330433\">McLuhan, Marshall. 1964. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man<\/em>. New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2105849\">Pierson, David. 2012. \u201cNumber of Web Users in China Hits 513 Million.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Los Angeles Times<\/em>, January 16. Retrieved January 16, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/latimesblogs.latimes.com\/technology\/2012\/01\/chinese-web-users-grow-to-513-million.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/latimesblogs.latimes.com\/technology\/2012\/01\/chinese-web-users-grow-to-513-million.html<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id2782635\">The World Bank. 2008. \u201cGlobal Economic Prospects 2008: Technology Diffusion in the Developing World.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">World Bank<\/em>. Retrieved January 24, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/siteresources.worldbank.org\/INTGEP2008\/Resources\/GEP_ove_001-016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/siteresources.worldbank.org\/INTGEP2008\/Resources\/GEP_ove_001-016.pdf<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div data-type=\"abstract\">\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the advantages and concerns of media globalization<\/li>\n<li>Understand the globalization of technology<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169033069220\">\n<div style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_08_03_01b.jpg\" alt=\"A Twitter update page from a U.S. photojournalist in Cairo, Egypt, during the recent uprising is shown.\" width=\"300\" height=\"420\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">These Twitter updates\u2014a revolution in real time\u2014show the role social media can play on the political stage. (Photo courtesy of Cambodia4kidsorg\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138349\">Technology, and increasingly media, has always driven globalization. In a landmark book, Thomas Friedman (2005), identified several ways in which technology \u201cflattened\u201d the globe and contributed to our global economy. The first edition of <em data-effect=\"italics\">The World Is Flat<\/em>, written in 2005, posits that core economic concepts were changed by personal computing and high-speed Internet. Access to these two technological shifts has allowed core-nation corporations to recruit workers in call centers located in China or India. Using examples like a Midwestern U.S. woman who runs a business from her home via the call centers of Bangalore, India, Friedman warns that this new world order will exist whether core-nation businesses are ready or not, and that in order to keep its key economic role in the world, the United States will need to pay attention to how it prepares workers of the twenty-first century for this dynamic.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033102851\">Of course not everyone agrees with Friedman\u2019s theory. Many economists pointed out that in reality innovation, economic activity, and population still gather in geographically attractive areas, and they continue to create economic peaks and valleys, which are by no means flattened out to mean equality for all. China\u2019s hugely innovative and powerful cities of Shanghai and Beijing are worlds away from the rural squalor of the country\u2019s poorest denizens.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033101836\">It is worth noting that Friedman is an economist, not a sociologist. His work focuses on the economic gains and risks this new world order entails. In this section, we will look more closely at how media globalization and technological globalization play out in a sociological perspective. As the names suggest, <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033111843\" data-type=\"term\">media globalization<\/span> is the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas, while <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033061676\" data-type=\"term\">technological globalization<\/span> refers to the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1483182\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Media Globalization<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033101846\">Lyons (2005) suggests that multinational corporations are the primary vehicle of media globalization, and these corporations control global mass-media content and distribution (Compaine 2005). It is true, when looking at who controls which media outlets, that there are fewer independent news sources as larger and larger conglomerates develop. The United States offers about 1,500 newspapers, 2,600 book publishers, and an equal number of television stations, plus 6,000 magazines and a whopping 10,000 radio outlets (Bagdikian 2004).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033103548\">On the surface, there is endless opportunity to find diverse media outlets. But the numbers are misleading. <strong><span data-type=\"term\">Media consolidation<\/span><\/strong> is a process in which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets. This creates an <strong><span data-type=\"term\">oligopoly<\/span><\/strong> in which a few firms dominate the media marketplace. In 1983, a mere 50 corporations owned the bulk of mass-media outlets. Today in the United States (which has no government-owned media) just five companies control 90 percent of media outlets (McChesney 1999). Ranked by 2014 company revenue, Comcast is the biggest, followed by the Disney Corporation, Time Warner, CBS, and Viacom (Time.com 2014). What impact does this consolidation have on the type of information to which the U.S. public is exposed? Does media consolidation deprive the public of multiple viewpoints and limit its discourse to the information and opinions shared by a few sources? Why does it matter?<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-339\">Monopolies matter because less competition typically means consumers are less well served since dissenting opinions or diverse viewpoints are less likely to be found. Media consolidation results in the following dysfunctions. First, consolidated media owes more to its stockholders than to the public. Publicly traded Fortune 500 companies must pay more attention to their profitability and to government regulators than to the public&#8217;s right to know. The few companies that control most of the media, because they are owned by the power elite, represent the political and social interests of only a small minority. In an oligopoly there are fewer incentives to innovate, improve services, or decrease prices.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033059173\">While some social scientists predicted that the increase in media forms would create a global village (McLuhan 1964), current research suggests that the public sphere accessing the global village will tend to be rich, Caucasoid, and English-speaking (Jan 2009). As shown by the spring 2011 uprisings throughout the Arab world, technology really does offer a window into the news of the world. For example, here in the United States we saw internet updates of Egyptian events in real time, with people tweeting, posting, and blogging on the ground in Tahrir Square.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033059175\">Still, there is no question that the exchange of technology from core nations to peripheral and semi-peripheral ones leads to a number of complex issues. For instance, someone using a conflict theorist approach might focus on how much political ideology and cultural colonialism occurs with technological growth. In theory at least, technological innovations are ideology-free; a fiber optic cable is the same in a Muslim country as a secular one, a communist country or a capitalist one. But those who bring technology to less-developed nations\u2014whether they are nongovernment organizations, businesses, or governments\u2014usually have an agenda. A functionalist, in contrast, might focus on the ways technology creates new means to share information about successful crop-growing programs, or on the economic benefits of opening a new market for cell phone use. Either way, cultural and societal assumptions and norms are being delivered along with those high-speed wires.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033062275\">Cultural and ideological bias are not the only risks of media globalization. In addition to the risk of cultural imperialism and the loss of local culture, other problems come with the benefits of a more interconnected globe. One risk is the potential for censoring by national governments that let in only the information and media they feel serve their message, as is occurring in China. In addition, core nations such as the United States risk the use of international media by criminals to circumvent local laws against socially deviant and dangerous behaviors such as gambling, child pornography, and the sex trade. Offshore or international web sites allow U.S. citizens (and others) to seek out whatever illegal or illicit information they want, from twenty-four hour online gambling sites that do not require proof of age, to sites that sell child pornography. These examples illustrate the societal risks of unfettered information flow.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1690744\" class=\"note sociology-big-picture textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\n<h3 class=\"title\" data-type=\"title\">China and the Internet: An Uncomfortable Friendship<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169033102907\">\n<div style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_08_03_02a.jpg\" alt=\"Many people sitting in chairs are shown staring at computer screens in a restaurant\/caf\u00e9 setting. Chinese posters can also be seen.\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">What information is accessible to these patrons of an internet caf\u00e9 in China? What is censored from their view? (Photo Courtesy of Kai Hendry\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033056786\">In the United States, the Internet is used to access illegal gambling and pornography sites, as well as to research stocks, crowd-source what car to buy, or keep in touch with childhood friends. Can we allow one or more of those activities, while restricting the rest? And who decides what needs restricting? In a country with democratic principles and an underlying belief in free-market capitalism, the answer is decided in the court system. But globally, the questions\u2013\u2013and the government\u2019s responses\u2013\u2013are very different.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033056789\">China is in many ways the global poster child for the uncomfortable relationship between Internet freedom and government control. China, which is a country with a tight rein on the dissemination of information, has long worked to suppress what it calls \u201charmful information,\u201d including dissent concerning government politics, dialogue about China\u2019s role in Tibet, or criticism of the government\u2019s handling of events.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033056791\">With sites like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube blocked in China, the nation\u2019s Internet users\u2013\u2013some 500 million strong in 2011\u2013\u2013turn to local media companies for their needs. Renren.com is China\u2019s answer to Facebook. Perhaps more importantly from a social-change perspective, Sina Weibo is China\u2019s version of Twitter. Microblogging, or <em data-effect=\"italics\">Weibo<\/em>, acts like Twitter in that users can post short messages that can be read by their subscribers. And because these services move so quickly and with such wide scope, it is difficult for government overseers to keep up. This tool was used to criticize government response to a deadly rail crash and to protest a chemical plant. It was also credited with the government\u2019s decision to report more accurately on the air pollution in Beijing, which occurred after a high-profile campaign by a well-known property developer (Pierson 2012).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033064910\">There is no question of China\u2019s authoritarian government ruling over this new form of Internet communication. The nation blocks the use of certain terms, such as human rights, and passes new laws that require people to register with their real names and make it more dangerous to criticize government actions. Indeed, fifty-six-year-old microblogger Wang Lihong was recently sentenced to nine months in prison for \u201cstirring up trouble,\u201d as her government described her work helping people with government grievances (Bristow 2011). But the government cannot shut down this flow of information completely. Foreign companies, seeking to engage with the increasingly important Chinese consumer market, have their own accounts: the NBA has more than 5 million followers, and Tom Cruise\u2019s Weibo account boasts almost 3 million followers (Zhang 2011). The government, too, uses Weibo to get its own message across. As the millennium progresses, China\u2019s approach to social media and the freedoms it offers will be watched anxiously\u2013\u2013on Sina Weibo and beyond\u2013\u2013by the rest of the world.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-id1492796\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Technological Globalization<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033121230\">Technological globalization is speeded in large part by <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033121233\" data-type=\"term\">technological diffusion<\/span>, the spread of technology across borders. In the last two decades, there has been rapid improvement in the spread of technology to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations, and a 2008 World Bank report discusses both the benefits and ongoing challenges of this diffusion. In general, the report found that technological progress and economic growth rates were linked, and that the rise in technological progress has helped improve the situations of many living in absolute poverty (World Bank 2008). The report recognizes that rural and low-tech products such as corn can benefit from new technological innovations, and that, conversely, technologies like mobile banking can aid those whose rural existence consists of low-tech market vending. In addition, technological advances in areas like mobile phones can lead to competition, lowered prices, and concurrent improvements in related areas such as mobile banking and information sharing.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138363\">However, the same patterns of social inequality that create a digital divide in the United States also create digital divides within peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. While the growth of technology use among countries has increased dramatically over the past several decades, the spread of technology within countries is significantly slower among peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. In these countries, far fewer people have the training and skills to take advantage of new technology, let alone access it. Technological access tends to be clustered around urban areas and leaves out vast swaths of peripheral-nation citizens. While the diffusion of information technologies has the potential to resolve many global social problems, it is often the population most in need that is most affected by the digital divide. For example, technology to purify water could save many lives, but the villages in peripheral nations most in need of water purification don\u2019t have access to the technology, the funds to purchase it, or the technological comfort level to introduce it as a solution.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-id1485546\" class=\"note sociology-real-world textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"\">\n<h3 class=\"title\" data-type=\"title\">The Mighty Cell Phone: How Mobile Phones Are Impacting Sub-Saharan Africa<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138998\">Many of Africa\u2019s poorest countries suffer from a marked lack of infrastructure including poor roads, limited electricity, and minimal access to education and telephones. But while landline use has not changed appreciably during the past ten years, there\u2019s been a fivefold increase in mobile phone access; more than a third of people in Sub-Saharan Africa have the ability to access a mobile phone (Katine 2010). Even more can use a \u201cvillage phone\u201d\u2014through a shared-phone program created by the Grameen Foundation. With access to mobile phone technology, a host of benefits become available that have the potential to change the dynamics in these poorest nations. Sometimes that change is as simple as being able to make a phone call to neighboring market towns. By finding out which markets have vendors interested in their goods, fishers and farmers can ensure they travel to the market that will serve them best and avoid a wasted trip. Others can use mobile phones and some of the emerging money-sending systems to securely send money to a family member or business partner elsewhere (Katine 2010).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100160\">These shared-phone programs are often funded by businesses like Germany\u2019s Vodafone or Britain\u2019s Masbabi, which hope to gain market share in the region. Phone giant Nokia points out that there are 4 billion mobile phone users worldwide\u2014that\u2019s more than twice as many people as have bank accounts\u2014meaning there is ripe opportunity to connect banking companies with people who need their services (ITU Telecom 2009). Not all access is corporate-based, however. Other programs are funded by business organizations that seek to help peripheral nations with tools for innovation and entrepreneurship.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100167\">But this wave of innovation and potential business comes with costs. There is, certainly, the risk of cultural imperialism, and the assumption that core nations (and core-nation multinationals) know what is best for those struggling in the world\u2019s poorest communities. Whether well intentioned or not, the vision of a continent of Africans successfully chatting on their iPhone may not be ideal. Like all aspects of global inequity, access to technology in Africa requires more than just foreign investment. There must be a concerted effort to ensure the benefits of technology get to where they are needed most.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1370116\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033121259\">Technology drives globalization, but what that means can be hard to decipher. While some economists see technological advances leading to a more level playing field where anyone anywhere can be a global contender, the reality is that opportunity still clusters in geographically advantaged areas. Still, technological diffusion has led to the spread of more and more technology across borders into peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. However, true technological global equality is a long way off.<\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/1126.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=1126&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/global-implications-of-media-and-technology\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1703381\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\n<div id=\"fs-id1806642\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1704148\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138476\">Do you believe that technology has indeed flattened the world in terms of providing opportunity? Why, or why not? Give examples to support your reason.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-id1324789\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1561365\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033138486\">Where do you get your news? Is it owned by a large conglomerate (you can do a web search and find out!)? Does it matter to you who owns your local news outlets? Why, or why not?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-id1561428\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1255743\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100690\">Who do you think is most likely to bring innovation and technology (like cell phone businesses) to Sub-Saharan Africa: nonprofit organizations, governments, or businesses? Why?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1388747\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164865302866\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>media consolidation<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164857873326\">a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033139235\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>media globalization<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1702674\">the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1164865350806\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>oligopoly<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1164857916993\">a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033139238\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>technological diffusion<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id855495\">the spread of technology across borders<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1169033063554\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>technological globalization<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1730247\">the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033100704\">Check out more on the global digital divide here: <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Global_Digital_Divide\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Global_Digital_Divide<\/a><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1569370\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-id1870268\">Acker, Jenny C., and Isaac M. Mbiti. 2010. \u201cMobile Phones and Economic Development in Africa.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Journal of Economic Perspectives<\/em> 24(3):207\u2013232. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1257\/jep.24.3.207\">[link]<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1257\/jep.24.3.207\" target=\"_blank\">pubs.aeaweb.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1257\/jep.24.3.207<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2119020\">Bagdikian, Ben H. 2004. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The New Media Monopoly<\/em>. Boston, MA: Beacon Press Books.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1489944\">Bristow, Michael. 2011. \u201cCan China Control Social Media Revolution?\u201d BBC News China, November 2. Retrieved January 14, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-pacific-15383756\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/world-asia-pacific-15383756<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2125244\">Compaine, B. 2005. \u201cGlobal Media.\u201d Pp. 97-101 in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Living in the Information Age: A New Media Reader<\/em> Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1760080\">Friedman, Thomas. 2005. <em data-effect=\"italics\">The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century<\/em>. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1612473\">ITU News. 2009. \u201cITU Telecom World 2009: Special Report: Reflecting New Needs and Realities.\u201d November. Retrieved January 14, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.itu.int\/net\/itunews\/issues\/2009\/09\/26.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.itu.int\/net\/itunews\/issues\/2009\/09\/26.aspx<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1990324\">Jan, Mirza. 2009. \u201cGlobalization of Media: Key Issues and Dimensions.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">European Journal of Scientific Research<\/em> 29:66\u201375.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1506048\">Katine Chronicles Blog. 2010. \u201cAre Mobile Phones Africa\u2019s Silver Bullet?\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Guardian<\/em>, January 14. Retrieved January 12, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/katine\/katine-chronicles-blog?page=6\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/katine\/katine-chronicles-blog?page=6<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2133084\">Ma, Damien. 2011. \u201c2011: When Chinese Social Media Found Its Legs.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Atlantic<\/em>, December 18. Retrieved January 15, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/international\/archive\/2011\/12\/2011-when-chinese-social-media-found-its-legs\/250083\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/international\/archive\/2011\/12\/2011-when-chinese-social-media-found-its-legs\/250083\/<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1330433\">McLuhan, Marshall. 1964. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man<\/em>. New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2105849\">Pierson, David. 2012. \u201cNumber of Web Users in China Hits 513 Million.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">Los Angeles Times<\/em>, January 16. Retrieved January 16, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/latimesblogs.latimes.com\/technology\/2012\/01\/chinese-web-users-grow-to-513-million.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/latimesblogs.latimes.com\/technology\/2012\/01\/chinese-web-users-grow-to-513-million.html<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id2782635\">The World Bank. 2008. \u201cGlobal Economic Prospects 2008: Technology Diffusion in the Developing World.\u201d <em data-effect=\"italics\">World Bank<\/em>. Retrieved January 24, 2012 (<a href=\"http:\/\/siteresources.worldbank.org\/INTGEP2008\/Resources\/GEP_ove_001-016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/siteresources.worldbank.org\/INTGEP2008\/Resources\/GEP_ove_001-016.pdf<\/a>).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-145\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Sociology 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":9,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Sociology 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-145","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":838,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/145","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/145\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1237,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/145\/revisions\/1237"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/838"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/145\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=145"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=145"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=145"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=145"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}