{"id":41,"date":"2015-05-23T03:33:20","date_gmt":"2015-05-23T03:33:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masterysoc1x6xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=41"},"modified":"2015-06-19T17:03:08","modified_gmt":"2015-06-19T17:03:08","slug":"approaches-to-sociological-research","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/approaches-to-sociological-research\/","title":{"raw":"Reading: Approaches to Sociological Research","rendered":"Reading: Approaches to Sociological Research"},"content":{"raw":"&nbsp;\r\n<div data-type=\"document-title\">Approaches to Sociological Research<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"abstract\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Define and describe the scientific method<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Understand the function and importance of an interpretive framework<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Define what reliability and validity mean in a research study<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1295828\">When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened family members, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2911374\">The crime during a full moon discussion put forth a few loosely stated opinions. If the human behaviors around those claims were tested systematically, a police officer, for example, could write a report and offer the findings to sociologists and the world in general. The new perspective could help people understand themselves and their neighbors and help people make better decisions about their lives. It might seem strange to use scientific practices to study social trends, but, as we shall see, it\u2019s extremely helpful to rely on systematic approaches that research methods provide.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1347539\">Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the sociologist forms the question, he or she proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033120809\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Scientific Method<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2351476\">Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2039636\">However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1489616\">The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scholarship.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"fs-id2638333\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"The figure shows a flowchart that states the scientific method. One: Ask a Question. Two: Research Existing Sources. Three: Formulate a Hypothesis. Four: Design and Conduct a Study. Five: Draw Conclusions. Six: Report Results.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"The figure shows a flowchart that states the scientific method. One: Ask a Question. Two: Research Existing Sources. Three: Formulate a Hypothesis. Four: Design and Conduct a Study. Five: Draw Conclusions. Six: Report Results.\">\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"225\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_02_01_01.jpg\" alt=\"The figure shows a flowchart that states the scientific method. One: Ask a Question. Two: Research Existing Sources. Three: Formulate a Hypothesis. Four: Design and Conduct a Study. Five: Draw Conclusions. Six: Report Results.\" width=\"225\" height=\"434\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> The scientific method is an essential tool in research.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1873453\">But just because sociological studies use scientific methods does not make the results less human. Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong facts. In this field, results of studies tend to provide people with access to knowledge they did not have before\u2014knowledge of other cultures, knowledge of rituals and beliefs, or knowledge of trends and attitudes. No matter what research approach they use, researchers want to maximize the study\u2019s <span id=\"import-auto-id1203598\" data-type=\"term\">reliability<\/span>, which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group. Researchers also strive for <span id=\"import-auto-id1344671\" data-type=\"term\">validity<\/span>, which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. Returning to the crime rate during a full moon topic, reliability of a study would reflect how well the resulting experience represents the average adult crime rate during a full moon. Validity would ensure that the study\u2019s design accurately examined what it was designed to study, so an exploration of adult criminal behaviors during a full moon should address that issue and not veer into other age groups\u2019 crimes, for example.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1750499\">In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might study environmental influences and patterns of behavior that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on negative behaviors or challenging situations, researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighborhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2618900\">Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in\u2014but not attached to\u2014the results. They work outside of their own political or social agendas. This doesn\u2019t mean researchers do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1665220\">With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2674434\">Typically, the scientific method starts with these steps\u20141) ask a question, 2) research existing sources, 3) formulate a hypothesis\u2014described below.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033135167\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Ask a Question<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1344280\">The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame. \u201cAre societies capable of sustained happiness?\u201d would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. \u201cWhat do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?\u201d would be too narrow. That said, happiness and hygiene are worthy topics to study. Sociologists do not rule out any topic, but would strive to frame these questions in better research terms.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2021131\">That is why sociologists are careful to define their terms. In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as \u201cpersonal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),\u201d and a researcher might ask, \u201cHow do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?\u201d When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop an <span id=\"import-auto-id1301566\" data-type=\"term\">operational definition<\/span>, that is, they define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1325342\">The operational definition must be valid, appropriate, and meaningful. And it must be reliable, meaning that results will be close to uniform when tested on more than one person. For example, \u201cgood drivers\u201d might be defined in many ways: those who use their turn signals, those who don\u2019t speed, or those who courteously allow others to merge. But these driving behaviors could be interpreted differently by different researchers and could be difficult to measure. Alternatively, \u201ca driver who has never received a traffic violation\u201d is a specific description that will lead researchers to obtain the same information, so it is an effective operational definition.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033159588\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Research Existing Sources<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1759367\">The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a <span id=\"import-auto-id2733064\" data-type=\"term\">literature review<\/span>, which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library and a thorough online search will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers\u2014including student researchers\u2014are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1188650\">To study hygiene and its value in a particular society, a researcher might sort through existing research and unearth studies about child-rearing, vanity, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and cultural attitudes toward beauty. It\u2019s important to sift through this information and determine what is relevant. Using existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve studies' designs.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033105588\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Formulate a Hypothesis<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1240914\">A <span id=\"import-auto-id2217888\" data-type=\"term\">hypothesis<\/span> is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. In research, <span id=\"import-auto-id2875832\" data-type=\"term\">independent variables<\/span> are the <em data-effect=\"italics\">cause<\/em> of the change. The <span id=\"import-auto-id1372836\" data-type=\"term\">dependent variable<\/span> is the <em data-effect=\"italics\">effect<\/em>, or thing that is changed.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1903899\">For example, in a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one\u2019s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table id=\"eip-245\" summary=\"A chart demonstrating and applying the concept of independent and dependent variables.\"><caption><span data-type=\"title\">Examples of Dependent and Independent Variables.\u00a0<\/span>Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way.<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th data-align=\"center\">Hypothesis<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"center\">Independent Variable<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"center\">Dependent Variable<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The greater the availability of affordable housing, the lower the homeless rate.<\/td>\r\n<td>Affordable Housing<\/td>\r\n<td>Homeless Rate<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The greater the availability of math tutoring, the higher the math grades.<\/td>\r\n<td>Math Tutoring<\/td>\r\n<td>Math Grades<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The greater the police patrol presence, the safer the neighborhood.<\/td>\r\n<td>Police Patrol Presence<\/td>\r\n<td>Safer Neighborhood<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The greater the factory lighting, the higher the productivity.<\/td>\r\n<td>Factory Lighting<\/td>\r\n<td>Productivity<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>The greater the amount of observation, the higher the public awareness.<\/td>\r\n<td>Observation<\/td>\r\n<td>Public Awareness<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2324649\">At this point, a researcher\u2019s operational definitions help measure the variables. In a study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, one researcher might define a \u201cgood\u201d grade as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for \u201cgood.\u201d Another operational definition might describe \u201ctutoring\u201d as \u201cone-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.\u201d Those definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2185229\">As the table shows, an independent variable is the one that causes a dependent variable to change. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Or rephrased, a child\u2019s sense of self-esteem depends, in part, on the quality and availability of hygienic resources.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1361826\">Of course, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. Perhaps a sociologist believes that increasing a child\u2019s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will automatically increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying two topics, or variables, is not enough; their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2620168\">Just because a sociologist forms an educated prediction of a study\u2019s outcome doesn\u2019t mean data contradicting the hypothesis aren\u2019t welcome. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While it has become at least a cultural assumption that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results will vary.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1494060\">Once the preliminary work is done, it\u2019s time for the next research steps: designing and conducting a study and drawing conclusions. These research methods are discussed below.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033103160\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Interpretive Framework<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2768819\">While many sociologists rely on the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an <span id=\"import-auto-id2731490\" data-type=\"term\">interpretive framework<\/span>. While systematic, this approach doesn\u2019t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an <em data-effect=\"italics\">interpretive framework<\/em>, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2839601\">Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects. This type of researcher also learns as he or she proceeds and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1408890\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2853619\">Using the scientific method, a researcher conducts a study in five phases: asking a question, researching existing sources, formulating a hypothesis, conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. The scientific method is useful in that it provides a clear method of organizing a study. Some sociologists conduct research through an interpretive framework rather than employing the scientific method.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2691736\">Scientific sociological studies often observe relationships between variables. Researchers study how one variable changes another. Prior to conducting a study, researchers are careful to apply operational definitions to their terms and to establish dependent and independent variables.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.com\/assessments\/313\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1305790\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1673109\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id2728854\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2082814\">Write down the first three steps of the scientific method. Think of a broad topic that you are interested in and which would make a good sociological study\u2014for example, ethnic diversity in a college, homecoming rituals, athletic scholarships, or teen driving. Now, take that topic through the first steps of the process. For each step, write a few sentences or a paragraph: 1) Ask a question about the topic. 2) Do some research and write down the titles of some articles or books you\u2019d want to read about the topic. 3) Formulate a hypothesis.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1153357\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2747018\" class=\"definition\"><dt>dependent variables<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1684857\">a variable changed by other variables<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1664715\" class=\"definition\"><dt>hypothesis<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1449559\">a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id3025224\" class=\"definition\"><dt>independent variables<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1844512\">variables that cause changes in dependent variables<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1459970\" class=\"definition\"><dt>interpretive framework<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id2110556\">a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1515290\" class=\"definition\"><dt>literature review<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1901339\">a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id2617918\" class=\"definition\"><dt>operational definitions<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1374911\">specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1394419\" class=\"definition\"><dt>reliability<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id1495059\">a measure of a study\u2019s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"import-auto-id1391874\" class=\"definition\"><dt>scientific method<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id3073674\">an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions<\/dd><\/dl><dl id=\"fs-id1371716\" class=\"definition\"><dt>validity<\/dt><dd id=\"fs-id2101495\">the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study<\/dd><\/dl><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1624472\">For a historical perspective on the scientific method in sociology, read \u201cThe Elements of Scientific Method in Sociology\u201d by F. Stuart Chapin (1914) in the <em data-effect=\"italics\">American Journal of Sociology<\/em>: <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Method-in-Sociology\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Method-in-Sociology<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1954557\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"eip-644\">Arkowitz, Hal, and Scott O. Lilienfeld. 2009. \"Lunacy and the Full Moon: Does a full moon really trigger strange behavior?\" Scientific American. Retrieved October 20, 2014 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/lunacy-and-the-full-moon\/\">http:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/lunacy-and-the-full-moon<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-509\">Berger, Peter L. 1963. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective<\/em>. New York: Anchor Books.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-101\">Merton, Robert. 1968 [1949]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Social Theory and Social Structure<\/em>. New York: Free Press.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"eip-518\">\u201cScientific Method Lab,\u201d the University of Utah, <a href=\"http:\/\/aspire.cosmic-ray.org\/labs\/scientific_method\/sci_method_main.html\">http:\/\/aspire.cosmic-ray.org\/labs\/scientific_method\/sci_method_main.html<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>","rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"document-title\">Approaches to Sociological Research<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"abstract\">\n<ul>\n<li>Define and describe the scientific method<\/li>\n<li>Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research<\/li>\n<li>Understand the function and importance of an interpretive framework<\/li>\n<li>Define what reliability and validity mean in a research study<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1295828\">When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered workplace patterns that have transformed industries, family patterns that have enlightened family members, and education patterns that have aided structural changes in classrooms.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2911374\">The crime during a full moon discussion put forth a few loosely stated opinions. If the human behaviors around those claims were tested systematically, a police officer, for example, could write a report and offer the findings to sociologists and the world in general. The new perspective could help people understand themselves and their neighbors and help people make better decisions about their lives. It might seem strange to use scientific practices to study social trends, but, as we shall see, it\u2019s extremely helpful to rely on systematic approaches that research methods provide.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1347539\">Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the sociologist forms the question, he or she proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033120809\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Scientific Method<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2351476\">Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2039636\">However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1489616\">The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scholarship.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"fs-id2638333\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"The figure shows a flowchart that states the scientific method. One: Ask a Question. Two: Research Existing Sources. Three: Formulate a Hypothesis. Four: Design and Conduct a Study. Five: Draw Conclusions. Six: Report Results.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"The figure shows a flowchart that states the scientific method. One: Ask a Question. Two: Research Existing Sources. Three: Formulate a Hypothesis. Four: Design and Conduct a Study. Five: Draw Conclusions. Six: Report Results.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/116\/2015\/05\/Figure_02_01_01.jpg\" alt=\"The figure shows a flowchart that states the scientific method. One: Ask a Question. Two: Research Existing Sources. Three: Formulate a Hypothesis. Four: Design and Conduct a Study. Five: Draw Conclusions. Six: Report Results.\" width=\"225\" height=\"434\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">The scientific method is an essential tool in research.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1873453\">But just because sociological studies use scientific methods does not make the results less human. Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong facts. In this field, results of studies tend to provide people with access to knowledge they did not have before\u2014knowledge of other cultures, knowledge of rituals and beliefs, or knowledge of trends and attitudes. No matter what research approach they use, researchers want to maximize the study\u2019s <span id=\"import-auto-id1203598\" data-type=\"term\">reliability<\/span>, which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group. Researchers also strive for <span id=\"import-auto-id1344671\" data-type=\"term\">validity<\/span>, which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. Returning to the crime rate during a full moon topic, reliability of a study would reflect how well the resulting experience represents the average adult crime rate during a full moon. Validity would ensure that the study\u2019s design accurately examined what it was designed to study, so an exploration of adult criminal behaviors during a full moon should address that issue and not veer into other age groups\u2019 crimes, for example.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1750499\">In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might study environmental influences and patterns of behavior that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on negative behaviors or challenging situations, researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighborhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2618900\">Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in\u2014but not attached to\u2014the results. They work outside of their own political or social agendas. This doesn\u2019t mean researchers do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1665220\">With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2674434\">Typically, the scientific method starts with these steps\u20141) ask a question, 2) research existing sources, 3) formulate a hypothesis\u2014described below.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033135167\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Ask a Question<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1344280\">The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame. \u201cAre societies capable of sustained happiness?\u201d would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. \u201cWhat do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?\u201d would be too narrow. That said, happiness and hygiene are worthy topics to study. Sociologists do not rule out any topic, but would strive to frame these questions in better research terms.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2021131\">That is why sociologists are careful to define their terms. In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as \u201cpersonal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),\u201d and a researcher might ask, \u201cHow do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?\u201d When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop an <span id=\"import-auto-id1301566\" data-type=\"term\">operational definition<\/span>, that is, they define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1325342\">The operational definition must be valid, appropriate, and meaningful. And it must be reliable, meaning that results will be close to uniform when tested on more than one person. For example, \u201cgood drivers\u201d might be defined in many ways: those who use their turn signals, those who don\u2019t speed, or those who courteously allow others to merge. But these driving behaviors could be interpreted differently by different researchers and could be difficult to measure. Alternatively, \u201ca driver who has never received a traffic violation\u201d is a specific description that will lead researchers to obtain the same information, so it is an effective operational definition.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033159588\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Research Existing Sources<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1759367\">The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a <span id=\"import-auto-id2733064\" data-type=\"term\">literature review<\/span>, which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library and a thorough online search will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers\u2014including student researchers\u2014are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1188650\">To study hygiene and its value in a particular society, a researcher might sort through existing research and unearth studies about child-rearing, vanity, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and cultural attitudes toward beauty. It\u2019s important to sift through this information and determine what is relevant. Using existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve studies&#8217; designs.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033105588\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Formulate a Hypothesis<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1240914\">A <span id=\"import-auto-id2217888\" data-type=\"term\">hypothesis<\/span> is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. In research, <span id=\"import-auto-id2875832\" data-type=\"term\">independent variables<\/span> are the <em data-effect=\"italics\">cause<\/em> of the change. The <span id=\"import-auto-id1372836\" data-type=\"term\">dependent variable<\/span> is the <em data-effect=\"italics\">effect<\/em>, or thing that is changed.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1903899\">For example, in a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one\u2019s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)?<\/p>\n<table id=\"eip-245\" summary=\"A chart demonstrating and applying the concept of independent and dependent variables.\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Examples of Dependent and Independent Variables.\u00a0<\/span>Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way.<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th data-align=\"center\">Hypothesis<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"center\">Independent Variable<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"center\">Dependent Variable<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>The greater the availability of affordable housing, the lower the homeless rate.<\/td>\n<td>Affordable Housing<\/td>\n<td>Homeless Rate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The greater the availability of math tutoring, the higher the math grades.<\/td>\n<td>Math Tutoring<\/td>\n<td>Math Grades<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The greater the police patrol presence, the safer the neighborhood.<\/td>\n<td>Police Patrol Presence<\/td>\n<td>Safer Neighborhood<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The greater the factory lighting, the higher the productivity.<\/td>\n<td>Factory Lighting<\/td>\n<td>Productivity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>The greater the amount of observation, the higher the public awareness.<\/td>\n<td>Observation<\/td>\n<td>Public Awareness<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2324649\">At this point, a researcher\u2019s operational definitions help measure the variables. In a study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, one researcher might define a \u201cgood\u201d grade as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for \u201cgood.\u201d Another operational definition might describe \u201ctutoring\u201d as \u201cone-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.\u201d Those definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2185229\">As the table shows, an independent variable is the one that causes a dependent variable to change. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Or rephrased, a child\u2019s sense of self-esteem depends, in part, on the quality and availability of hygienic resources.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1361826\">Of course, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. Perhaps a sociologist believes that increasing a child\u2019s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will automatically increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying two topics, or variables, is not enough; their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2620168\">Just because a sociologist forms an educated prediction of a study\u2019s outcome doesn\u2019t mean data contradicting the hypothesis aren\u2019t welcome. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While it has become at least a cultural assumption that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results will vary.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1494060\">Once the preliminary work is done, it\u2019s time for the next research steps: designing and conducting a study and drawing conclusions. These research methods are discussed below.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033103160\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Interpretive Framework<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2768819\">While many sociologists rely on the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an <span id=\"import-auto-id2731490\" data-type=\"term\">interpretive framework<\/span>. While systematic, this approach doesn\u2019t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an <em data-effect=\"italics\">interpretive framework<\/em>, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2839601\">Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects. This type of researcher also learns as he or she proceeds and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1408890\" class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"section-summary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2853619\">Using the scientific method, a researcher conducts a study in five phases: asking a question, researching existing sources, formulating a hypothesis, conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. The scientific method is useful in that it provides a clear method of organizing a study. Some sociologists conduct research through an interpretive framework rather than employing the scientific method.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2691736\">Scientific sociological studies often observe relationships between variables. Researchers study how one variable changes another. Prior to conducting a study, researchers are careful to apply operational definitions to their terms and to establish dependent and independent variables.<\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/313.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=313&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/chapter\/approaches-to-sociological-research\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1305790\" class=\"short-answer\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short Answer<\/h2>\n<div id=\"fs-id1673109\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"fs-id2728854\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2082814\">Write down the first three steps of the scientific method. Think of a broad topic that you are interested in and which would make a good sociological study\u2014for example, ethnic diversity in a college, homecoming rituals, athletic scholarships, or teen driving. Now, take that topic through the first steps of the process. For each step, write a few sentences or a paragraph: 1) Ask a question about the topic. 2) Do some research and write down the titles of some articles or books you\u2019d want to read about the topic. 3) Formulate a hypothesis.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1153357\" class=\"further-research\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"further-research\">\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2747018\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>dependent variables<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1684857\">a variable changed by other variables<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1664715\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>hypothesis<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1449559\">a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id3025224\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>independent variables<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1844512\">variables that cause changes in dependent variables<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1459970\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>interpretive framework<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id2110556\">a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1515290\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>literature review<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1901339\">a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id2617918\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>operational definitions<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1374911\">specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1394419\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>reliability<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1495059\">a measure of a study\u2019s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"import-auto-id1391874\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>scientific method<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id3073674\">an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-id1371716\" class=\"definition\">\n<dt>validity<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id2101495\">the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\"><\/h1>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Further Research<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1624472\">For a historical perspective on the scientific method in sociology, read \u201cThe Elements of Scientific Method in Sociology\u201d by F. Stuart Chapin (1914) in the <em data-effect=\"italics\">American Journal of Sociology<\/em>: <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Method-in-Sociology\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/Method-in-Sociology<\/a><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1954557\" class=\"references\" data-depth=\"1\" data-element-type=\"references\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">References<\/h2>\n<p id=\"eip-644\">Arkowitz, Hal, and Scott O. Lilienfeld. 2009. &#8220;Lunacy and the Full Moon: Does a full moon really trigger strange behavior?&#8221; Scientific American. Retrieved October 20, 2014 (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/lunacy-and-the-full-moon\/\">http:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/lunacy-and-the-full-moon<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-509\">Berger, Peter L. 1963. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective<\/em>. New York: Anchor Books.<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-101\">Merton, Robert. 1968 [1949]. <em data-effect=\"italics\">Social Theory and Social Structure<\/em>. New York: Free Press.<\/p>\n<p id=\"eip-518\">\u201cScientific Method Lab,\u201d the University of Utah, <a href=\"http:\/\/aspire.cosmic-ray.org\/labs\/scientific_method\/sci_method_main.html\">http:\/\/aspire.cosmic-ray.org\/labs\/scientific_method\/sci_method_main.html<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-41\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Sociology 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":9,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Sociology 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-41","chapter","type-chapter","status-web-only","hentry"],"part":370,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/41","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/41\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1088,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/41\/revisions\/1088"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/370"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/41\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=41"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=41"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=41"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=41"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}